Landslides triggered by the 22 July 2013 Minxian–Zhangxian,China, Mw 5.9 earthquake: Inventory compiling and spatial distribution analysis

On July 22, 2013, an earthquake of Ms. 6.6 occurred at the junction area of Minxian and Zhangxian counties, Gansu Province, China. This earthquake triggered many landslides of various types, dominated by small-scale soil falls, slides, and topples on loess scarps. There were also a few deep-seated landslides, large-scale soil avalanches, and fissure-developing slopes. In this paper, an inventory of landslides triggered by this event is prepared based on field investigations and visual interpretation of high-resolution satellite images. The spatial distribution of the landslides is then analyzed. The inventory indicates that at least 2330 landslides were triggered by the earthquake. A correlation statistics of the landslides with topographic, geologic, and earthquake factors is performed based on the GIS platform. The results show that the largest number of landslides and the highest landslide density are at 2400 m–2600 m of absolute elevation, and 200 m–300 m of relative elevation, respectively. The landslide density does not always increase with slope gradient as previously suggested. The slopes most prone to landslides are in S, SW, W, and NW directions. Concave slopes register higher landslide density and larger number of landslides than convex slopes. The largest number of landslides occurs on topographic position with middle slopes, whereas the highest landslide density corresponds to valleys and lower slopes. The underlying bedrocks consisting of conglomerate and sandstone of Lower Paleogene (E^b) register both the largest number and area of landslides and the highest landslide number and area density values. Correlations of landslide number and landslide density with perpendicular- and along-strike distance from the epicenter show an obvious spatial intensifying character of the co-seismic landslides. The spatial pattern of the co-seismic landslides is strongly controlled by a branch of the Lintan-Dangchang fault, which indicates the effect of seismogenic fault on co-seismic landslides. In addition, the area affected by landslides related to the earthquake is compared to the relationship of “area affected by landslides vs. earthquake magnitude” constructed based on earthquakes worldwide, and it is shown that the area affected by landslides triggered by the Minxian–Zhangxian earthquake is larger than that of almost all other events with similar magnitudes.     

Dynamics of the Niumiangou Creek rock avalanche triggered by 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China

The Niumiangou Creek rock avalanche was triggered by an M_s 8.0 earthquake that happened on 12 May 2008 in the Sichuan Province, China. The rock avalanche traveled a horizontal distance of 3.0 km over a vertical elevation difference of 0.89 km, equivalent to a coefficient of friction of only 0.29. The travel path of the rock avalanche can be divided into three segments: (1) failing and disintegrating, (2) flying, (3) flowing. In the failing and disintegrating segment, the rock slope failed because of the coupled action of horizontal and vertical force of the earthquake, then smashed into the opposite mountain and disintegrated. In the flying segment, the disintegrating rock mass changed direction and flew into the Lianhuaxin Creek, which was different from the previous research results that concluded rock debris flowed in Lianhuaxin Creek. A great amount of air trapped and compressed under the rock debris acted as air cushion and supported the rock debris to fly a further distance. In the flowing segment, the rock debris flowed on the ground surface in Niumiangou Creek. The flowing velocity has been estimated from the maximum elevation and runup according to the damaged trimlines of the debris. The saturated fine material in Niumiangou Creek entrained by the failed debris mass is thought to have contributed to the long runout of the debris. The Niumiangou Creek rock avalanche is one of the three longest rock avalanches triggered by Wenchuan earthquake. The conclusions of the paper have implications for hazard assessment of potential rock avalanches in the earthquake area and the other similar mountainous area in west China.     

Numerical runout simulation of debris avalanches in the Faroe Islands, North Atlantic Ocean

The Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean are susceptible to flow-type landslides in coarse-grained highly organic colluvium. Following several hazardous debris avalanche events, research work has been initiated to quantify landslide risk. A central task in this work is to predict landslide runout behavior. From numerical simulation of four debris avalanches, this study provides a first screening of which rheology and appertaining input parameters best predict runout behavior of debris avalanches in the Faroe Islands. Three rheologies (frictional, Voellmy, and Bingham) are selected and used for individual back analysis of the events in the numerical models BING and DAN3D. A best fit rheology is selected from comparing predicted and observed landslide runout behavior. General back analysis to identify the optimal input parameters for the chosen rheology is performed by cross validation, where each debris avalanche is modeled with input parameters from the three other events. Optimal input parameters are found from the model run producing the most accurate runout length and velocity. The Bingham is selected as the best fit rheology, a result differing from similar studies of coarse-grained landslides. A reason for why particularly the frictional rheology proves unsuitable is its tendency to produce too long runout lengths of the low-weight runout material, a result showing important limitations for using the frictional rheology in DAN3D. Optimal Bingham input parameters are τ _y ?=?980 Pa and μ _b ?=?117 Pa/s. However, future studies performed in 2D models are needed for precise parameterization before results can be used for landslide risk assessment.     

Characteristics and numerical runout modelling of a catastrophic rock avalanche triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake in the Wenjia valley,Mianzhu, Sichuan,China

The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake triggered more than 100 rock avalanches with volumes greater than 10 million cubic metres. The rock avalanche with the longest runout amongst these destructive landslides occurred in the Wenjia valley, Mianzhu, Sichuan, China. The landslide involved the failure of about 27.5 million cubic metres of sandstone from the source area. The displaced material travelled about 4,170 m with an elevation descent of about 1,360 m, equivalent to a fahrböschung of 16.9° and covered an area of 1.5 million square metres, with the final deposited volume of approximately 49 million cubic metres. The catastrophic event destroyed the village of Yanjing, killed 48 people and buried some houses at the mouth of the Wenjia valley. On the basis of a detailed field investigation, we introduce basic characteristics of the rock avalanche and find that the rock avalanche resulted in two run-ups and a superelevation along the runout path, and downslope enlargement due to the entrainment of path materials. A numerical model (DAN3D) is used to simulate the post-failure behaviour of the rock avalanche. By means of trial and error, a combination of the frictional model and Voellmy model is found to provide the best performance in simulating this rock avalanche. The simulation results reveal that the rock avalanche had a duration of about 240 s and an average velocity of 17.4 m/s.     

Influence of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (Mw 7.9) on the occurrence probability of future earthquakes on neighboring faults

The Longquan–Shan fault and the Huya fault are two major neighboring faults of the Longmen–Shan fault zone where the 12 May 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M_w 7.9) occurred. To study the influence of the Wenchuan event on these two active faults, we calculate changes of Coulomb stress on the Longquan–Shan fault and the Huya fault caused by the Wenchuan mainshock. Our results indicate that the Coulomb stress in the northern section (Zone A) of the Longquan–Shan fault is increased by 0.07–0.10 bars, that in the middle section (Zone B) by 0.04–0.11 bars, and that in the southern section (Zone C) shows almost no change. For the Huya fault, the Coulomb stress is decreased by 0.01–0.03 bars in the northern section (Zone A), 0.10–0.35 bars in the middle section (Zone B), and nearly 0.5 bars in the southern section (Zone C). The epicenter distribution of small earthquakes (M_L ⩾ 1.5) on the Longquan–Shan fault and the Huya fault after the Wenchuan earthquake is consistent with the distribution of the Coulomb stress change. This implies that the Wenchuan earthquake may have triggered small events on the Longquan–Shan fault, but inhibited those on the Huya fault. We then use the rate/state friction law to calculate the occurrence probability of future earthquakes in the study region for the next decade. They include the distribution of b-values, magnitude of completeness (M_c), the background seismicity rate, a value of Aσ_n and the duration for the transient effect (t_a) in the study region. We also estimate the earthquake occurrence probabilities on the neighboring faults after the Wenchuan earthquake. Our results show that, the occurrence probability of future earthquakes in the Longquan–Shan has a slight increase, being 7% for M ⩾ 5.0 shocks during the next decade, but the earthquake probability in the Huya region is reduced obviously, being 5–20%, 7–26% and 3–9% for M ⩾ 5.0 shocks during the next decade in sections A, B and C of the Huya fault, respectively.     

Green Lake Landslide and other giant and very large postglacial landslides in Fiordland,New Zealand

Green Lake Landslide is an ancient giant rock slide in gneiss and granodiorite located in the deeply glaciated Fiordland region of New Zealand. The landslide covers an area of 45 km² and has a volume of about 27 km³. It is believed to be New Zealand's largest landslide, and possibly the largest landslide of its type on Earth. It is one of 39 known very large (10⁶–10⁷ m³) and giant (≥10⁸ m³) postglacial landslides in Fiordland discussed in the paper. Green Lake Landslide resulted in the collapse of a 9 km segment of the southern Hunter Mountains. Slide debris moved up to 2.5 km laterally and 700 m vertically, and formed a landslide dam about 800 m high, impounding a lake about 11 km long that was eventually infilled with sediments. Geomorphic evidence supported by radiocarbon dating indicates that Green Lake Landslide probably occurred 12 000–13 000 years ago, near the end of the last (Otira) glaciation. The landslide is described, and its geomorphic significance, age, failure mechanism, cause, and relevance in the region are discussed, in relation to other large landslides and recent earthquake-induced landslides in Fiordland. The slope failure occurred on a low-angle fault zone undercut by glacial erosion, and was probably triggered by strong shaking (MM IX–X) associated with a large (≥ M 7.5–8) earthquake, on the Alpine Fault c. 80 km to the northwest. Geology was a major factor that controlled the style and size of Green Lake landslide, and in that respect it is significantly different from most other gigantic landslides. Future large earthquakes on the Alpine Fault in Fiordland are likely to trigger more very large and giant landslides across the region, causing ground damage and devastation on a scale that has not occurred during the last 160 years, with potentially disastrous effects on towns, tourist centres, roads, and infrastructure. The probability of such an event occurring within the next 50 years may be as high as 45%.     

Dynamic process analysis for the initiation and movement of the Donghekou landslide-debris flow triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake

The Donghekou landslide-debris flow was a remarkable geological disaster triggered by the Wenchuan earthquake in 2008. The dynamic process of a rapid landslide-debris flow is very complicated and can be divided into two aspects: the slope dynamic response of the earthquake and the mass movement and accumulation process. A numerical method combined with a finite difference method (FDM) and discrete element method (DEM) for simulation of landslide-debris flow under seismic loading is presented. The FDM and DEM are coupled through the critical sliding surface, initiation time and velocity. The dynamic response of the slope is simulated by the finite difference method, and critical sliding surface is determined using the earthquake response spectrum method. The landslide initiation time and the velocity are determined by time–history analysis. The mass movement and accumulation process is simulated using the discrete element method. Simulation results demonstrate that the maximum amplification coefficient of dynamic acceleration for the Donghekou slope is approximately 3.909, the initiation time of landslide is approximately 6.0 s, and the average initial velocity of the sliding mass is approximately 0.85 m/s. The failure of the slope is the result of elevation-orientated amplification effect and the sliding mass triggered with a small initial velocity. The numerical simulated result of the maximum sliding velocity is approximately 66.35 m/s, and the mass is disintegrated rapidly because of collision and free fall. The landslide velocity decreases when the flowing mass reaches a lower slope angle and gradually comes to a stop, and the total travel distance is approximately 2400 m.     

Interactions between rock avalanches and glaciers in the Mont Blanc massif during the late Holocene

Rock avalanches are common in the Mont Blanc massif, which is bordered by valleys with large resident and tourist populations and important highways. This paper combines historical data with detailed geomorphological mapping, stratigraphic observation, and absolute and relative dating, to interpret several deposits resulting from rock avalanching onto glaciers.Nineteen rock falls and rock avalanches are described, ranging in volume from 10,000 m³ to 10 × 10⁶ m³. They occurred between 2500 BP and AD 2007 at six sites. The events at three sites (Miage and Drus Glaciers, and Tour des Grandes Jorasses) are characterised by short travel distances; those at Brenva, Triolet, and Frébouge Glaciers exhibit excessive travel distances.Interactions between rock avalanches and glaciers are of four types: (i) rock-avalanche triggering, where glacial and paraglacial controls include debuttressing of rockwalls due to glacier thinning and retreat, oversteepening of rock slopes by glacial erosion, and effects of glaciers on permafrost; (ii) rock-avalanche mobility, in which mobility and travel distance are modified by channelling of rock-avalanche debris by moraines and valleys, incorporation of ice and snow (often >50% for large events), and irregularities on the glacier surface; (iii) deposit sedimentology, where melting of incorporated ice transforms the final deposit by reducing its thickness typically to <5 m, and debris of variable thicknesses is juxtaposed in a hummocky deposit with chaotic piles of angular rock debris; and (iv) glacier dynamics where insulating debris deposited upon a glacier produces a debris-covered glacier of different dynamics, and high elevated scars can favour the formation of small glaciers.     

Surface deformation related to the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake,and mountain building of the Longmen Shan,eastern Tibetan Plateau

The 12 May 2008 M_s 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake, China, was one of largest continental thrusting events worldwide. Based on interpretations of post-earthquake high-resolution remote sensing images and field surveys, we investigated the geometry, geomorphology, and kinematics of co-seismic surface ruptures, as well as seismic and geologic hazards along the Longmen Shan fold-and-thrust belt. Our results indicate that the Wenchuan earthquake occurred along the NE–SW-trending Yingxiu–Beichuan and Guanxian–Anxian faults in the Longmen Shan fold-and-thrust belt. The main surface rupture zones along the Yingxiu–Beichuan and Guanxian–Anxian fault zones are approximately 235 and 72 km in length, respectively. These sub-parallel ruptures may merge at depth. The Yingxiu–Donghekou surface rupture zone can be divided into four segments separated by discontinuities that appear as step-overs or bends in map view. Surface deformation is characterized by oblique reverse faulting with a maximum vertical displacement of approximately 10 m in areas around Beichuan County. Earthquake-related disasters (e.g., landslides) are linearly distributed along the surface rupture zones and associated river valleys.The Wenchuan earthquake provides new insights into the nature of mountain building within the Longmen Shan, eastern Tibetan Plateau. The total crustal shortening accommodated by this great earthquake was as much as 8.5 m, with a maximum vertical uplift of approximately 10 m. The present results suggest that ongoing mountain building of the Longmen Shan is driven mainly by crustal shortening and uplift related to repeated large seismic events such as the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. Furthermore, rapid erosion within the Longmen Shan fold-and-thrust belt occurs along deep valleys and rupture zones following the occurrence of large-scale landslides triggered by earthquakes. Consequently, we suggest that crustal shortening related to repeated great seismic events, together with isostatic rebound induced by rapid erosion-related unloading, is a key component of the geodynamics that drive ongoing mountain building on the eastern Tibetan Plateau.     

Landslide hazards triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China

The 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M _s = 8.0; epicenter located at 31.0° N, 103.4° E), with a focal depth of 19.0 km was triggered by the reactivation of the Longmenshan fault in Wenchuan County, Sichuan Province, China on 12 May 2008. This earthquake directly caused more than 15,000 geohazards in the form of landslides, rockfalls, and debris flows which resulted in about 20,000 deaths. It also caused more than 10,000 potential geohazard sites, especially for rockfalls, reflecting the susceptibility of high and steep slopes in mountainous areas affected by the earthquake. Landslide occurrence on mountain ridges and peaks indicated that seismic shaking was amplified by mountainous topography. Thirty-three of the high-risk landslide lakes with landslide dam heights greater than 10 m were classified into four levels: extremely high risk, high risk, medium risk, and low risk. The levels were created by comprehensively analyzing the capacity of landslide lakes, the height of landslide dams, and the composition and structure of materials that blocked rivers. In the epicenter area which was 300 km long and 10 km wide along the main seismic fault, there were lots of landslides triggered by the earthquake, and these landslides have a common characteristic of a discontinuous but flat sliding surface. The failure surfaces can be classified into the following three types based on their overall shape: concave, convex, and terraced. Field evidences illustrated that the vertical component of ground shaking had a significant effect on both building collapse and landslide generation. The ground motion records show that the vertical acceleration is greater than the horizontal, and the acceleration must be larger than 1.0 g in some parts along the main seismic fault. Two landslides are discussed as high speed and long runout cases. One is the Chengxi landslide in Beichuan County, and the other is the Donghekou landslide in Qingchuan County. In each case, the runout process and its impact on people and property were analyzed. The Chengxi landslide killed 1,600 people and destroyed numerous houses. The Donghekou landslide is a complex landslide–debris flow with a long runout. The debris flow scoured the bank of the Qingjiang River for a length of 2,400 m and subsequently formed a landslide dam. This landslide buried seven villages and killed more than 400 people.     

东河口高速远程滑坡-碎屑流全程动力特性模拟

高速远程滑坡-碎屑流具有速度快、滑程远、冲击破坏力强等特点,是一种危害性极大的地质灾害,往往会造成严重的生命财产损失。汶川地震后,国内学者对高速远程滑坡-碎屑流的研究取得了大量前瞻性成果,但由于此类滑坡自身的复杂性,目前为止尚未取得公认的研究成果。为了进一步揭示高速远程-碎屑流效应机理,本文以汶川地震触发的青川东河口滑坡-碎屑流为例,通过滑坡动力分析软件DAN-W分别建立了摩擦模型、Voellmy模型和F-V等3种不同的滑坡数值模型,对东河口滑坡-碎屑流的运动距离、不同时刻运动速度特性、堆积物分布规律及滑坡堆积体积进行了模拟,同时对滑坡运动时间进行了估算。模拟结果表明:根据高速远程滑坡-碎屑流不同运动阶段选择不同的流变模型分析的结果更加合理。摩擦流变模型对运动距离的模拟结果小于滑坡的实际滑程,适于模拟滑体整体性好的启程和近程运动阶段; Voellmy 流变模型对滑体的运动距离模拟效果很好,但对速度的分析结果偏大,适合模拟滑坡远程碎屑流运动阶段; F-V双流变模型对滑坡运动特性模拟效果最佳,并给出了选取东河口滑坡-碎屑流数值模型的最佳流变参数,摩擦角φ=18°,摩擦系数μ=0.1,湍流系数ξ=400m·s-2。     

The Wenchuan Earthquake (May 12, 2008), Sichuan Province,China, and resulting geohazards

On Monday, May 12, 2008, a devastating mega-earthquake of magnitude 8.0 struck the Wenchuan area, northwestern Sichuan Province, China. The focal mechanism of the earthquake was successive massive rock fracturing 15 km in depth at Yingxiu. Seismic analysis confirms that the major shock occurred on the Beichuan–Yingxiu Fault and that aftershocks rapidly extended in a straight northeast–southeast direction along the Longmenshan Fault zone. Fatalities approaching a total of 15,000 occurred, with a significant number resulting from four types of seismically triggered geohazards—rock avalanches and landslides, landslide-dammed lakes (“earthquake lakes”), and debris flows. China Geological Survey has identified 4,970 potentially risky sites, 1,701 landslides, 1,844 rock avalanches, 515 debris flows, and 1,093 unstable slopes. Rock avalanches and landslides caused many fatalities directly and disrupted the transportation system, extensively disrupting rescue efforts and thereby causing additional fatalities. Landslide-dammed lakes not only flooded human habitats in upstream areas but also posed threats to potentially inundated downstream areas with large populations. Debris flows become the most remarkable geohazards featured by increasing number, high frequency, and low triggering rainfall. Earthquake-triggered geohazards sequentially induced and transformed to additional hazards. For example, debris flows occurred on rock avalanches and landslides, followed by landslide-dammed lakes, and then by additional debris flows and breakouts of the landslide-dammed lakes and downstream flooding. Earthquake-induced geohazards occurred mainly along the fault zone and decreased sharply with distance from the fault. It can be anticipated that post-earthquake geohazards, particularly for debris flows, will continue for 5–10 years and even for as long as 20 years. An integrated strategy of continuing emergency response and economic reconstruction is required. The lesson from Wenchuan Earthquake is that the resulted geohazards may appear in large number in active fault regions. A plan for geohazard prevention in the earthquake-active mountainous areas is needed in advance.     

Spatial distribution of landslides triggered by the 2008 Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake,China

The Ms 8.0 Wenchuan earthquake of May 12, 2008 is one of the most disastrous earthquakes in China. The earthquake triggered tens of thousands of landslides over a broad area, including shallow, disrupted landslides, rock falls, deep-seated landslides, and rock avalanches, some of which buried large sections of some towns and dammed the rivers. The purpose of this study is to investigate correlations between the occurrence of landslides with geologic and geomorphologic conditions, and seismic parameters. Over 56,000 earthquake-triggered landslides, with a total area of 811 km², are interpreted using aerial photographs and remote sensing images taken following the earthquake. The spatial distribution of these landslides is analyzed statistically using both landslide-point density (LPD), defined as the number of landslides per square kilometer, and landslide-area density (LAD), the percentage of the area affected by landslides, to determine how the occurrence of landslides correlates with distance from the epicenter, distance from the major surface rupture, seismic intensity and peak ground acceleration (PGA), slope angle, slope aspect, elevation, and lithology. It is found that both LAD and LPD have strong positive correlations with slope steepness, distance from the major surface rupture and seismic intensity, and that Pre-Sinian schist, and Cambrian sandstone and siltstone intercalated with slate have the most concentrated landslide activities, followed by the Permian limestone intercalated with shale, and Devonian limestone. Statistical analyses also indicate that the major surface rupture has influence on the spatial distribution of landslides, because LAD and LPD are relatively higher on the hanging wall than on the footwall. However, the correlation between the occurrence of landslides with distance from the epicenter of the earthquake is complicated, rather than a relatively simple negative correlation as found from other reported cases of earthquakes. This is possibly due to complicated rupture processes of the earthquake.     

An empirical model for landslide travel distance prediction in Wenchuan earthquake area

Sliding mass of landslides highly endangered the area along travel path, especially landslides with long travel distance. It is necessary to develop an effective prediction model for preliminarily evaluating landslide travel distance so as to improve disaster prevention and relocation. This paper collected 54 landslides with 347–4,170 m travel distance triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake to discuss the effectiveness of various influential factors on landslide travel distance and obtained an empirical model for its prediction. The results revealed that rock type, sliding source volume, and slope transition angle were the predominant factors on landslide travel distance. The validity of proposed model was verified by the satisfactory agreement between observations and predictions. Therefore, this model might be practically applicable in Wenchuan earthquake area and other similar geomorphological and geological regions.     

汶川八级地震滑坡特征分析

汶川地震诱发的15000多处滑坡明显受地震断裂控制,主要沿龙门山主中央断裂带和后山断裂带展布,沿龙门山主中央断裂带汶川映秀安县高川北川陈家坝平武南坝一线,滑坡面密度大于50%以上,最大可达70%。沿断裂带形成了大量的松动山体,在暴雨期间极易发生滑坡、泥石流灾害,对灾后重建构成严重威胁。据初步调查,汶川地震触发的体积最大的滑坡是位于主中央断裂带上的安县高川大光包滑坡,滑动距离长4500m,滑坡堆积体长2800m,宽1700~2200m,最大厚度达580m,若以平均厚度200m计,体积达11亿m3为我国已发生的单体滑坡之最。与常见滑坡明显不同的是,汶川地震极震区滑坡的滑床往往不具连续完整的滑面,剪出口滑坡特征不明显,呈现明显的尖点突起或边缘突出特征,反映出上部滑体被地震力振动解体,甚至抛掷后与下部滑床边缘发生撞击。以阶型滑坡、凸型滑坡、勺型崩滑、座落型（振胀型）滑坡和巨大滚石5种类型最为典型。根据强震地面运动纪录和大量实例调查表明,在汶川地震极震区,触发滑坡的地震竖向力作用是非常明显的,大量滑坡经历了初始斜坡（风化碎裂岩体）地震抛掷撞击崩裂高速滑流的作用过程。     

Nature and timing of large landslides in the Himalaya and Transhimalaya of northern India

Four large landslides, each with a debris volume >10⁶ m³, in the Himalaya and Transhimalaya of northern India were examined, mapped, and dated using ¹⁰Be terrestrial cosmogenic radionuclide surface exposure dating. The landslides date to 7.7±1.0 ka (Darcha), 7.9±0.8 ka (Patseo), 6.6±0.4 ka (Kelang Serai), and 8.5±0.5 ka (Chilam). Comparison of slip surface dips and physically reasonable angles of internal friction suggests that the landslides may have been triggered by increased pore water pressure, seismic shaking, or a combination of these two processes. However, the steepness of discontinuities in the Darcha rock-slope, suggests that it was more likely to have started as a consequence of gravitationally-induced buckling of planar slabs. Deglaciation of the region occurred more than 2000 years before the Darcha, Patseo, and Kelang Serai landslides; it is unlikely that glacial debuttressing was responsible for triggering the landslides. The four landslides, their causes, potential triggers and mechanisms, and their ages are compared to 12 previously dated large landslides in the region. Fourteen of the 16 dated landslides occurred during periods of intensified monsoons. Seismic shaking, however, cannot be ruled out as a mechanism for landslide initiation, because the Himalaya has experienced great earthquakes on centennial to millennial timescales. The average Holocene landscape lowering due to large landslides for the Lahul region, which contains the Darcha, Patseo, and Kelang Serai landslides, is ～0.12 mm/yr. Previously published large-landslide landscape-lowering rates for the Himalaya differ significantly. Furthermore, regional glacial and fluvial denudation rates for the Himalaya are more than an order of magnitude greater. This difference highlights the lack of large-landslide data, lack of chronology, problems associated with single catchment/large landslide-based calculations, and the need for regional landscape-lowering determinations over a standardized time period.     

Possible roles of the Zipingpu Reservoir in triggering the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake

To better understand the role the Zipingpu Reservoir may have played in triggering the 2008 M_s8 (M_w7.9) Wenchuan earthquake in China, this study evaluates changes of Coulomb failure stress (ΔCFS) and assesses their role in local seismicity and their potential impact on the Wenchuan earthquake. In addition, key aspects associated with reservoir-triggered earthquake (RTS), including mechanisms of stress triggering and permeability of fault zones, is briefly reviewed. ΔCFS was calculated at the faults involved in the Wenchuan earthquake due to the combined effects of gravitational loading and pore-pressure diffusion from the impoundment history of the reservoir. ΔCFS on the major source fault is larger than 0.1 MPa in the upper 10 km below the reservoir and reached a few tens of kPa at the focal depth. Such levels of ΔCFS are large enough to modulate the secular stress buildup of a few kPa/yr in the Longmen-shan thrust zone. Based on detailed analysis of numerical results and local seismicity, the author suggests that it is not proper to rule out the possibility of the Wenchuan earthquake being a RTS only based on very limited knowledge from a few cases of historical RTS so far.     

Ancient landslide-dam events in the Jishi Gorge,upper Yellow River valley,China

Some scholars have argued that the formation and outburst of an ancient dammed lake in the Jishi Gorge at ca. 3700 cal yr BP resulted in the destruction of Lajia, the site of a famous prehistoric disaster in the Guanting Basin, upper Yellow River valley, China. However, the cause of the dammed lake and the exact age of the dam breaching are still debated. We investigated ancient landslides and evidence for the dammed lake in the Jishi Gorge, including dating of soil from the shear zone of an ancient landslide, sediments of the ancient dammed lake, and loess above lacustrine sediments using radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating methods. Six radiocarbon dates and two OSL dates suggested that the ancient landslides and dammed lake events in the Jishi Gorge probably occurred around 8100 cal yr BP, and the ancient dammed lake was breached between 6780 cal yr BP and 5750 cal yr BP. Hence, the outburst of the ancient dammed lake in the Jishi Gorge was unrelated to the ruin of the Lajia site, but likely resulted in flood disasters in the Guanting Basin around 6500 cal yr BP.     

Exhumation history and faulting activity of the southern segment of the Longmen Shan,eastern Tibet

The Longmen Shan (LMS), which constitutes the eastern border of the Tibetan Plateau, is about 400 km in length and characterized by a steep topographic transition from the Sichuan Basin to the plateau. The 2008 M_w7.9 Wenchuan earthquake and 2013 M_w6.6 Lushan earthquake were associated with the central to northern segments and southern segment of the LMS fault belt, respectively. In this paper, zircon and apatite fission track (ZFT and AFT, respectively) dating in combination with previously published low temperature thermochronology studies are used to constrain both the exhumation history and fault activity along the LMS, with a special focus on the southern segment. In the southern segment of the LMS, the ZFT ages in the hanging wall of the Wulong-Yanjing fault 10–14 Ma, increasing to ca. 30 Ma to the northwest of the faults and to 100–200 Ma in the plateau region. The AFT ages are 3–5 Ma at the mountain front and increase to 8–26 Ma in the plateau. We show that these age distributions are controlled by fault geometry. Two stages of rapid exhumation were identified using apatite fission track length modeling and the age distributions in the southern segment of the LMS. The first stage is from ca. 30 Ma and the second stage is from 3–5 Ma to present. In contrast with the middle segment of the LMS, the Cenozoic exhumation rate is higher in the southern segment of the LMS, which may be due to the influence of the collision between the India and Eurasia plates and/or different faulting mechanisms in the different segments.     

沟道型滑坡-碎屑流运动距离经验预测模型研究

沟道型滑坡-碎屑流具有隐蔽性强、危险性高、力学机理复杂的特点,研究其运动距离预测模型具有重要的理论意义和实践意义。本文基于遥感GIS技术,结合野外调查,获取了汶川地震触发的38个沟道型滑坡-碎屑流的基础数据。通过相关性分析确定沟道型滑坡-碎屑流最大水平运动距离L的影响因素从大到小依次是滑坡体积V、最大垂直运动距离H、滑源区高差Hs、沟道段坡度β。采用逐步回归方法建立了滑坡-碎屑流最大水平运动距离L的最优多元回归模型,检验结果表明模型具有较高精度。将最优多元回归模型与国际上应用较多的滑坡运动距离和泥石流运动距离预测模型进行对比,表明考虑滑坡体积、地形落差和沟道段坡度的运动距离预测指标体系,具有最高的拟合优度和较好的物理含义,可为沟谷山区滑坡-碎屑流危险性评价提供参考依据。