Formation of planets during the evolution of single and binary stars

Current views of the origin and evolution of single and binary stars suggest that the planets can form aroundmain-sequence single and binary stars, degenerate dwarfs, neutron stars, and stellarmass black holes according to several scenarios. Planets can arise during the formation of a star mainly due to excess angular momentum leading to the formation of an accretion-decretion disk of gas and dust around a single star or the components of a binary. It is the evolution of such disks that gives rise to planetary systems. A disk can arise around a star during its evolution due to the accretion of matter from dense interstellar clouds of gas and dust onto the star, the accretion of mass froma companion in a binary system, and the loss of matter during the contraction of a rapidly rotating star, in particular, if the star rotates as a rigid body and the rotation accelerates with its evolution along the main sequence. The fraction of stars with planetary systems is theoretically estimated as 30–40%, which is close to the current observational estimate of ∼34%.     

Two-dimensional hydrodynamical modeling of mass transfer in semidetached binaries with asynchronously rotating components

We have modeled the mass transfer in the three semidetached binaries U Cep, RZ Sct, and V373 Cas taking into account radiative cooling both implicitly and explicitly. The systems have asynchronously rotating components and high mass-transfer rates of the order of 10^?6M_⊙/yr; they are undergoing various stages of their evolution. An accreting star rotates asynchronously if added angular momentum is redistributed over the entire star over a time that exceeds the synchronization time. Calculations have indicated that, in the model considered, mass transfer through the point L₁ is unable to desynchronize the donor star. The formation of an accretion disk and outer envelope depends on the component-mass ratio of the binary. If this ratio is of the order of unity, the flow makes a direct impact with the atmosphere of the accreting star, resulting in the formation of a small accretion disk and a relatively dense outer envelope. This is true of the disks in U Cep and V373 Cas. When the component-mass ratio substantially exceeds unity (the case in RZ Sct), the flow forms a large, dense accretion disk and less dense outer envelope. Taking into account radiative cooling both implicitly and explicitly, we show that a series of shocks forms in the envelopes of these systems.     

Effect of the initial density and angular-velocity profiles of pre-stellar cores on the properties of young stellar objects

The physical properties of young stellar objects are studied as functions of the initial spatial distributions of the gas surface density Σ and angular velocity Ω in pre-stellar cores using numerical hydrodynamic simulations. Two limiting cases are considered: spatially homogeneous cores with Σ = const and Ω = const and centrally concentrated cores with radius-dependent densities Σ ∝ r ⁻¹ and Ω ∝ r ⁻¹. The degree of gravitational instability and protostellar disk fragmentation is mostly determined by the initial core mass and the ratio of the rotational to the gravitational energy, and depends only weakly on the initial spatial configuration of pre-stellar cores, except for the earliest stages of evolution, when models with spatially homogeneous cores can be more gravitationally unstable. The accretion of disk matter onto a protostar also depends weakly on the initial distributions of Σ and Ω, with matter from the collapsing core falling onto the disk at a rate that is slightly higher in models with spatially homogeneous cores. An appreciable dependence of the disk mass, disk radius, and the disk-to-protostar mass ratio on the initial density and angular velocity profiles of the parent core is found only for class 0 young objects; this relationship is not systematic in the later I and II stages of stellar evolution. The mass of the central protostar depends weakly on the initial core configuration in all three evolutionary stages.     

Photometric and polarimetric activity of RZ Psc

We present the results of synchronous photometric and polarimetric U BV RI observations of the irregular variable star RZ Psc, acquired at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory in 1989–2002. The star’s photometric behavior is characterized by short, sporadic Algol-like dimmings. We observed only one deep minimum, with a V amplitude of about 1.5^m, during the entire observation time. During this minimum, the star’s linear polarization reached 3.5%. Comparisons with polarization observations of RZ Psc during another deep minimum in 1989 show that the two minima can be described by the same polarization-brightness relation, testifying to an eclipsing nature for the minima. This provides evidence that the optical characteristics of the flattened circumstellar dust envelope that gives rise to the star’s intrinsic polarization have remained virtually unchanged over the last 13 years. We argue that the origin of this stability is the presence of a large dust-free cavity in the central region of the circumstellar dust disk of RZ Psc. The cavity could be associated with binarity of the star or the formation of a planetary system, with most of the dust in the central region of the disk being transformed into large bodies—planetesimals and planets.     

Periodic Accretion in the T Tauri Binary UZ Tau E

Results of three-dimensional numerical simulations of the gas dynamics of the envelope of the young T Tauri binary star UZ Tau E are considered. The flow structure in the circumstellar envelope of the system is analyzed. It is shown that a regime with the impulsive accretion of matter from the circumstellar disk is realized in the binary system, in which there is a periodic transfer of matter to the accretion disk of the primary component through the accretion disk of the secondary.

     

Structure of the circumbinary envelope around a young binary system

The structure of a circumstellar envelope around a young binary T Tauri star is considered. The supersonic orbital motion of the system components in the envelope gas leads to the formation of bow shocks around the star. Two- and three-dimensional numerical modeling indicates an important role of these shocks in the formation of the structure of the circumbinary envelope. In particular, for systems with circular orbits, the size of the central region of the envelope that is not filled with matter (the “gap”) is essentially determined by the parameters of the bow shocks. These modeling results are supported by comparisons of the obtained estimates for the gap parameters with observations.     

The Fragmentation in a Protoplanetary Disk and the Properties of the Resultant Self-Gravitating Clumps

We study the fragmentation properties in the protoplanetary disk and properties of the resultant self-gravitating clumps using our newly constructed disk model. Our disk model includes the mass inflall term from a molecular cloud core and the photoevaporation winds effect. We adopt the conventional fragmentation criterion to judge whether a protoplanetary disk can fragment. In this work, we follow our previous work to investigate the properties of the resultant self-gravitating clumps. In our calculation, the initial masses of the resultant self-gravitating clumps lie in the range of tens of M_J to more than one hundred of M_J, where M_J is the Jupiter mass. These initial masses can seemingly account for the masses of extrasolar planets in magnitude. We also calculate the subsequent gas accretion of clumps in 1.27 × 10⁴ yr after the formation of self-gravitating clumps. We find that the subsequent gas accretion of self-gravitating clumps is very efficient, and the clump masses grow to hundreds of M_J and the physical radii R_c of clumps increase to about 10 AU. Additionally, we also calculate the orbital migration of clumps. We find that most clumps have short migration timescale to be accreted onto the protostar, and only a small fraction of clumps have long migration timescale (>10⁶ yr) to successfully become gas giant planets. These results are consistent with previous studies.     

太阳系行星系统的形成和演化

本文评述了星云和星子假说、太阳星云的崩塌、星盘的形成和演化、颗粒生长、星子增生、类地行星和类木行星的形成、行星迁移,以及太阳和行星的演化。     

Models of astrophysical decretion-accretion diffusional disks

The formation of gaseous diffusional accretion-decretion disks is an important stage in the evolution of numerous astronomical objects. Matter is accreted onto the object in the accretion part of these disks, while the angular momentum of the accreted matter is transported from the central region to the periphery in the decretion part. Here, we consider general questions connected with the formation and evolution of diffusive accretion-decretion disks in various astrophysical objects. Such disks can be described using nonstationary diffusion models. The phenomenological parameters of these models are the coefficients in the relations for the characteristic turbulent velocity and mean free path of diffusion elements in the disk. We have developed a numerical technique to compute the disk evolution for a number of models (a massive disk, a disk with continuous accretion, a purely decretion disk). Analytical expressions estimating the basic parameters of accretion-decretion disks are presented. We discuss the relationship between the models considered and the classical α model of an accretion disk.     

Close binaries containing Supermassive Black Holes

We consider the evolution of binary systems formed by a Supermassive Black Hole (SMBH) residing in the center of a galaxy or a globular cluster and a star in its immediate vicinity. The star is assumed to fill its Roche lobe, and the SMBH accretes primarily the matter of this star. The evolution of such a system is mainly determined by the same processes as for an ordinary binary. The main differences are that the donor star is irradiated by hard radiation emitted during accretion onto the SMBH; in a detached system, nearly all the donor wind is captured by the black hole, which strongly affects the evolution of the semi-major axis; it is not possible for companions of the most massive SMBHs to fill their Roche lobes, since the corresponding orbital separations are smaller than the radius of the last stable orbit in the gravitational field of the SMBH. Moreover, there may not be efficient exchange between the orbital angular momentum and the angular momentum of the overflowing matter in such systems. Our computations assumed that, if the characteristic timescale for mass transfer is smaller than the thermal timescale of the star, no momentum exchange occurs. Absorption of incident external radiation in the stellar envelope was treated using the same formalism that was used when computing the radiative transfer in the stellar atmosphere. Numerical simulations show that Roche-lobe overflow is possible for a broad range of initial system parameters. The evolution of semi-detached systems containing a star and a SMBH nearly always ends with the dynamical disruption of the star. Stars with masses close to the solar mass are destroyed immediately after they fill their Roche lobes. During the accretion of matter of disrupted stars, the SMBH can achieve quasar luminosities. If the SMBH accretes ambient gas as well as gas stripped from stars, the star is subject to additional radiation in the detached phase of its evolution, strengthening its stellar wind. This leads to an increase of the semi-major axis and subsequent decrease of the probability of Roche-lobe overflow during the subsequent evolution of the system.     

Influence of luminosity bursts on properties of protostellar disks

A (2+ 1)-dimensional numerical model for the formation and evolution of young stellar objects with sub-solar masses is presented. The numerical hydrodynamicall code describing the formation and evolution of a pølar disk in a two-dimensional approximation is supplemented by one-dimensional code for the evolution of the star and an algorithm for establishing the vertical structure of the disk. This code is used to investigate the influence of luminosity bursts with intensities similar to those observed in FU Orionis objects (FUors) on the properties and thermal balance of pølar disks. A model with gravitational instability and fragmentation of the disk, with subsequent migration of the fragments onto the protostar, is used as a basic model for FUors. Typical FUor bursts (L ～ 100 L ^⊙) can appreciably influence the thermal balance of their disks and parent envelopes, leading to an increase in the disk temperature by more than a factor of two. On the other hand, massive fragments in the disk are only weakly perturbed by such bursts, partially due to screening by the disk and partially due to their high temperature brought about by adiabatic heating. Apart from massive fragments, the characteristic thermal time scales are appreciably shorter than the dynamical time scales throughout the radial extent of the disk and envelope; this enables the use of a stationary radiative-transfer equation when determining the vertical structure of the disk.     

Evolution of a Viscous Protoplanetary Disk with Convectively Unstable Regions

The role of convection in the gas-dust accretion disk around a young star is studied. The evolution of a Keplerian disk is modeled using the Pringle equation, which describes the time variations of the surface density under the action of turbulent viscosity. The distributions of the density and temperature in the polar directions are computed simultaneously in the approximation that the disk is hydrostatically stable. The computations of the vertical structure of the disk take into account heating by stellar radiation, interstellar radiation, and viscous heating. The main factor governing evolution of the disk in this model is the dependence of the viscosity coefficient on the radius of the disk. The computations of this coefficient take into account the background viscosity providing the continuous accretion of the gas and the convective viscosity, which depends on the parameters of the convection at a given radius. The results of computations of the global evolution and morphology of the disk obtained in this approach are presented. It is shown that, in the adopted model, the accretion has burst-like character: after the inner part of the disk ($$R < 3$$ AU) is filled with matter, this material is transferred relatively rapidly onto the star, after which the process is repeated. Our results may be useful for explaining the activity of young FU Ori and EX Lup objects. It is concluded that convection may be one of the mechanisms responsible for the non-steady pattern of accretion in protostellar disks.     

The evolutionary status of ultraluminous X-ray sources

We analyze models for quasi-stationary, ultraluminous X-ray sources (ULXs) with luminosities 10³⁸–10⁴⁰ erg/s exceeding the Eddington limit for a ～1.4M_⊙ neutron star. With the exception of relatively rare stationary ULXs that are associated with supernova remnants or background quasars, most ULXs are close binary systems containing a massive stellar black hole (BH) that accretes matter donated by a stellar companion. To explain the observed luminosities of ～10⁴⁰ erg/s, the mass of the BH must be ～40M_⊙ if the accreted matter is helium and ～60M_⊙ if the accreted matter has the solar chemical composition. We consider donors in the form of main-sequence stars, red giants, red supergiants, degenerate helium dwarfs, heavy disks that are the remnants of disrupted degenerate dwarfs, helium nondegenerate stars, and Wolf-Rayet stars. The most common ULXs in galaxies with active star formation are BHs with Roche-lobe-filling main-sequence companions with masses ～7M_⊙ or close Wolf-Rayet companions, which support the required mass-exchange rate via their strong stellar winds. The most probable candidate ULXs in old galaxies are BHs surrounded by massive disks and close binaries containing a BH and degenerate helium-dwarf, red-giant, or red-supergiant donor.     

Disk wind in young binaries and its impact on the infrared excesses of young stars

We consider the effect of binarity of young stars on the spectral energy distribution of the IR radiation from circumstellar dust. The formation of a common dust envelope in a binary system with a low-mass secondary component is strongly affected by the disk wind from the secondary. The small velocities in peripheral areas of the wind are such that it can be partially or entirely captured by the primary, even when the distance between the components is up to several astronomical units. As a result, an envelope with a rather complex spatial and kinematic structure is formed. Its mass is many orders of magnitude smaller than that of the accretion disk around the binary. However, the thermal radiation emitted by dust particles of the envelope can be comparable to the total radiation of the accretion disk. This result is discussed in the context of the deficit at near-IR wavelengths (2–10µm) in current models for accretion disks around young stars.     

Magnetorotational supernova explosions and the formation of neutron stars in close binary systems

The formation of neutron stars in the closest binary systems (P _orb<12 h) gives the young neutron star/pulsar a high rotational velocity and energy. The presence of a magnetic field of 3×10¹¹–3×10¹³ G, as is observed for radio pulsars, enables the neutron star to transfer ～10⁵¹ erg of its rotational energy to the envelope over a time scale of less than an hour, leading to a magnetorotational supernova explosion. Estimates indicate that about 30% of all type-Ib,c supernovae may be the products of magnetorotational explosions. Young pulsars produced by such supernovae should exhibit comparatively slow rotation (P _rot>0.01 s), since a large fraction of their rotational angular momentum is lost during the explosion. The magnetorotational mechanism for the ejection of the envelope is also reflected by the shape of the envelope. It is possible that the Crab radio pulsar is an example of a product of a magnetorotational supernova. A possible scenario for the formation of the close binary radio pulsar discovered recently by Lyne et al. is considered.     

Comparison between two-and three-dimensional modeling of the structure of an accretion disk in a binary system

We compare two-and three-dimensional modeling of gas-dynamical processes in the accretion disk of a binary system. The origin of spiral waves and the loss of the angular momentum related to them are considered. It is concluded that a steady state of the disk cannot exist without taking into account t he gas inflow from the donor star.     

Mathematical modeling of the structure of an accretion disk in a stellar binary system

Numerical simulations of gas-dynamical processes taking place in the accretion disk of a stellar binary system are presented. The initial state of the disk is an equilibrium gaseous configuration. Mechanisms for the development of spiral waves and associated variations in the angular momentum of the gas are considered. The influence of the ratio of the binary-component masses and the initial disk configuration are investigated. It is concluded that the existence of a steady-state disk is impossible without a flow of gas from the donor star.     

Three-dimensional hydrodynamical modeling of the two-component wind and accretion disk in the close binary β Lyrae

This paper continues a series of studies on three-dimensional hydrodynamical modeling of mass transfer in the binary system β Lyr. The model takes into account the stellar wind from the donor star, which outflows at a rate of , as demonstrated by radio observations. This stellar wind should appreciably influence the formation of the envelope in the binary. Computations have shown that the interaction of the matter flow from the Lagrangian point L₁ and the accretor wind leads to the formation of an optically and geometrically thick gaseous envelope around the accretor. The matter flow meets the accretor wind, spreads out, accumulates over the outer edge of the wind, and forms a geometrically thick envelope (disk). The wind flows freely at the center of the disk, over the accretor poles. Jet-like structures arise beyond the wind-propagation region, above the thick accretion disk. The matter flowing from the outer edge of the disk interacts with the donor wind, leading to the formation of a standing shock between L₁ and the outer edge of the disk, in the direction corresponding to orbital phase 0.25. This shock is able to explain the origin of the X-ray radiation from the binary β Lyr.     

The formation and evolution of the most massive stars

We consider the formation of massive stars under the assumption that a young star accretes material from the protostellar cloud through its accretion disk while losing gas in the polar directions via its stellar wind. The mass of the star reaches its maximum when the intensity of the gradually strengthening stellar wind of the young star becomes equal to the accretion rate. We show that the maximum mass of the forming stars increases with the temperature of gas in the protostellar cloud T ₀, since the rate at which the protostellar matter is accreted increases with T ₀. Numerical modeling indicates that the maximum mass of the forming stars increases to ～900 M _⊙ for T ₀ ～ 300 K. Such high temperatures of the protostellar gas can be reached either in dense star-formation regions or in the vicinity of bright active galactic nuclei. It is also shown that, the lower the abundance of heavy elements in the initial stellar material Z, the larger the maximum mass of the star, since the mass-loss rate due to the stellar wind decreases with decreasing Z. This suggests that supermassive stars with masses up to 10⁶ M _⊙ could be formed at early stages in the evolution of the Universe, in young galaxies that are almost devoid of heavy elements. Under the current conditions, for T ₀ = (30–100) K, the maximum mass of a star can reach ～100M _⊙, as is confirmed by observations. Another opportunity for the most massive stars to increase their masses emerges in connection with the formation and early stages of evolution of the most massive close binary systems: the most massive stars can be produced either by coalescence of the binary components or via mass transfer in such systems.     

Molecular structure of brown-dwarf disks

We describe typical features of the chemical composition of proto-planetary disks around brown dwarfs. We model the chemical evolution in the disks around a low-mass T Tauri star and a cooler brown dwarf over a time span of 1 Myr using a model for the physical structure of an accretion disk with a vertical temperature gradient and an extensive set of gas-phase chemical reactions. We find that the disks of T Tauri stars are, in general, hotter and denser than the disks of lower-luminosity substellar objects. In addition, they have more pronounced vertical temperature gradients. The atmospheres of the disks around low-mass stars are more strongly ionized by UV and X-ray radiation, while less dense brown-dwarf disks have higher fractional ionizations in their midplanes. Nevertheless, in both cases, most molecules are concentrated in the so-called warm molecular layer between the ionized atmosphere and cold midplane, where grains with ice mantles are abundant.