Karst flash flooding in a Mediterranean karst, the example of Fontaine de Nîmes

Karst flash flooding, identified as one of the hazards in karst terrains, is directly linked to the structure and hydraulic properties of karst aquifers. Due to the characteristics of flow within karst aquifers, characterized by a dual flow – diffuse flow within fissured limestone and conduit flow within karst conduits networks – flash flooding may be important in volume and dynamics. Such phenomenon may cause serious damages including loss of lives, as it occurred on 3rd October 1988 in Nîmes (Gard, South France). Flash floods there have been considered to be the result of very intensive rainfall events conjugated to runoff due to the geomorphologic context of the city located down hill. However, preliminary results of recent studies of the hydrologic behaviour of groundwater and surface water for a specific event (September 2005) show that the karst plays an important role in the flood genesis. The main characteristics of the Nîmes karst system leading to karst flash flooding are presented in this paper. A methodology comprising modelling of the karst system allowed proposing simple warning thresholds for various part of the karst (water level threshold for the karst conduits and cumulative rainfall threshold for the overflowing fissured karst). These thresholds can be included in the flash flood warning system of the Nîmes city.     

香溪河岩溶流域水系结构与洪峰特征关系

为研究香溪河岩溶流域地表水系结构特征与洪峰流量衰减过程规律,采用统计方法分析典型子流域的水系结构特征,采用流量衰减方程分析其典型退水过程。地表水流量衰减过程存在若干个亚动态,将各个亚动态的水量分配比例作为描述洪峰特征的特征值,将水系数目比例、水系长度比例作为描述水系结构的特征值,把两者作相关分析。结果表明:岩溶区水系长度比例与水量比例在第一和第三亚动态具有较高的相关性,相关性判定系数高达0.84,使用水系长度比例更能反映水系结构的特征。      

石期河流域岩溶水系统及其水资源构成分析

在深入研究石期河流域岩溶水系统含水介质结构特征、水资源形成的基础上,通过对流域岩溶水总排泄口流量动态长观资料系列的分析,选择2005年丰水期内最后一次洪峰(年内最大洪峰)后的流量衰减过程,根据该过程的数据资料建立本流域岩溶水总排泄口的流量衰减方程,并利用该流量衰减方程对流域岩溶水资源的构成进行定量分析研究。结果表明,石期河流域岩溶水系统在2005年最大洪峰状态下,可自然排泄的岩溶水资源总量为69 469.95×104 m3, 其中:流域坡面产流占3.64%,赋存于大型溶洞或管道中的溶洞-管道水占4.53%,赋存于小型管道或强岩溶化裂隙中的管道-裂隙水占74.10%,赋存于细小溶蚀裂隙中的溶隙水占17.73%。从衰减期的初始时刻起,它们各自可供消耗(可作为有效利用岩溶水资源)的时效分别为2日、8日、35日和126日以上。      

基于指标信度测度赋权的岩溶隧道水害危险性集对云评价研究

隧道水害危险性评价是一个非线性复杂的不确定系统问题。首先,针对其评价指标参数具有不确定性、模糊性和随机性等特点,在充分考虑岩溶隧道水害危险性评价指标关联性的基础上,提出了基于Jousselme距离的指标信度测度动态赋权理论,实现不同的实例、不同的指标实测值对整个系统的动态赋权,降低实际工作中由于指标实测值误差或错误导致评价结果偏差的风险;其次,运用云理论优化集对联系度,与所得权重加权得出系统综合云联系度,并与等级评价区间期望加权平均得到危险值,同时生成对应的等级云图判定隧道水害危险性等级,进而判定岩溶隧道水害危险状态,实现水害危险等级判定的可视化;再次,基于大气降水为岩溶隧道水害主要来源的视角,选取年均降水量、入渗系数、汇水面积、渗透系数和单位涌水量5项指标作为集对云评价指标,并以6条典型岩溶隧道为样本数据进行模型检验,发现评价结果与其他方法的评价结果相吻合,证明了该模型的可靠性和有效性。最后,将模型应用于京珠高速公路媲双坳岩溶隧道水害事故中,评价结果与实际情况相符,采取与评价等级相对应的处治措施,取得了良好的水害治理效果,表明该模型具有工程实用价值,评价流程可操作性强,为岩溶隧道水害的预测和防治提供参考。      

Mediterranean flash flood transfer through karstic area

Karstic aquifers influence flash floods propagation in Mediterranean countries. Near Montpellier, Southern France, discharge data are recorded on the Coulazou River upstream and downstream of the Aumelas Causse. Two gauging stations are used to describe the hydrodynamics of this binary karstic system. The first station characterizes the non-karstic catchment area. The second one is representative of the karstic part of the watershed. Records since April 2004 are used to understand how the river interacts with a karstic aquifer. Hydrograph analysis of three flash flood events is described. Corresponding discharge time series recorded at the two gauging stations are used to describe the modification of the hydrographs by auto- and crosscorrelations analyses. Finally, linear system analyses are used to provide the transfer functions of this binary karstic system according to the three flood events characteristics (initial conditions, volume, spatial distribution of rainfall, etc.). Theses functions summarize the hydrodynamic behaviour of the system: their shapes are indicative of the dynamics of the storage, the release and the contribution to surface waters.

极端降水条件下北京西山黑龙关泉响应研究

2012年7月21日,北京房山区发生特大暴雨,暴雨从21日10时开始到22日2时结束。总降雨量达228mm,是北京60年一遇暴雨。暴雨后,黑龙关泉域岩溶水系统内的各种水资源要素都对其形成积极响应。依据岩溶地下水位统测、区域地质构造以及地貌条件综合分析黑龙关泉地下水系统补、径、排。研究黑龙关泉地下水系统对7.21洪水响应。从地下水位、地表河流、泉水水量、岩溶地下水化学分析7.21洪水前后变化情况。降水后,大石河流量最大达221m~3/s,水化学类型中带硫酸根离子的样品数显著增加。7月15日,实测黑龙关泉水流量为0.31m~3/s,7月21日上午实测为0.30m~3/s,25日分别对大石河的黑龙关泉口上、下游进行实测,获得泉水流量为3.47m~3/s,到29日降至2.34m~3/s,流量变化较为剧烈,与大石河水对岩溶水的补给密切相关。为进一步研究北京黑龙关泉域岩溶水的变化规律和岩溶水资源评价及合理开发利用提供了科学依据。     

Trace elements and environmental isotopes as tracers of surface water–groundwater interaction: a case study at Xin’an karst water system,Shanxi Province,Northern China

In this case study, silica concentration, oxygen and strontium isotopes of water samples were used to study surface water–groundwater interaction at the Xin’an karst water system. The silica concentration in rain water is commonly less than 1 mg/l. In the areas around the south tributary of the Zhuozhang River, silica concentrations in the groundwater in Quaternary aquifers range between 4.04 and 7.66 mg/l while that of the surface water varies from 1.49 to 6.9 mg/l. Silica concentrations of most surface water samples increase with TDS, indicating the effect of groundwater recharge on river water chemistry. On the contour map of silica concentration of groundwater in Quaternary aquifers, samples located close to surface water often have lower silica concentrations as a result of surface water recharge. Both overland flow and surface water have impact on karst water according to our hydrogeochemical study of stable oxygen isotope, Sr isotope and strontium contents. Calculation results of three end member mixing model show that the contribution of karst water, surface water and overland flow water is 45, 28 and 27%, respectively.     

A transdisciplinary analysis of water problems in the mountainous karst areas of Morocco

Water management and engineering in the karstic High Atlas of Morocco are difficult tasks under the prevailing geological, hydrogeological, geomorphological, vegetational and climatic conditions. It is important to be able to understand and predict the characteristics and availability of water for future water planning in the region under changing climatic and agricultural conditions. An interdisciplinary analysis of problems and adequate hydrological modelling tools developed by geologists, hydrologists and biologists are necessary. The karst areas of the High Atlas Mountains are characterised by impermeable triassic basalt underlying substantial subsurface reservoirs with high potential discharge rates. The karst groundwater aquifers are extensive but largely unknown in dimension, probably with a hierarchical network of groundwater flow paths. It is estimated that approximately 70% of the surface water is directly lost to groundwater. Steep landslide- and debris flow prone slopes exist next to coarse-grained, highly porous river beds. Infrequent, high intensity rainfall or snowmelt causes a particularly high flood risk to these karst areas. In addition, agriculture and land use changes have degraded the karst areas. The most important driving forces for degradation include permanent overgrazing even during droughts and the use of firewood by a continually growing population. Large scale degradation of vegetation has occurred in the oro-mediterranean (mountainous Mediterranean) zone, between 2600 and 3400 m which coincides with the most important zone for karstic groundwater creation. The combination of high amounts of groundwater flow and rapid surface flow due to sparse vegetation has increased the problems of flood flow.     

南方小型岩溶流域与非岩溶流域的释水过程及径流组分差异

我国南方岩溶流域和非岩溶流域下垫面条件和含水介质结构的差异造成了不同的产汇流过程及机制,进而导致不同释水时段径流组分的开发利用价值不同。为深入理解岩溶流域的产汇流机制并探索岩溶流域的水资源评价方法,文章对鄂西庙沟岩溶流域和高家坪非岩溶流域共31次洪水过程进行了流量衰减分析,对比分析了两个流域的标准衰减方程、典型次降雨的释水过程以及不同洪峰流量下的径流组分差异。结果表明:岩溶流域的释水过程快于非岩溶流域,其衰减系数比非岩溶流域大40％;两个流域的河流基流均来自裂隙介质释水,裂隙介质为流域的主要储水空间,但非岩溶流域的裂隙介质比例比岩溶流域高8.8％;随洪峰流量增加,两个流域的地表径流占比均呈对数形式增大,地下径流占比均呈对数形式减小;岩溶流域径流组分随洪峰流量变化比非岩溶流域更为敏感,其地表径流占比变幅为4％~40％,而非岩溶流域则始终小于10％。文章定量评价了管道和裂隙介质在流域中的导水及储水功能,在进一步刻画岩溶流域产汇流过程及机制方面进行了有益的探索,研究结果可为岩溶山区水资源评价和流域水文模型的改进提供科学依据。     

基于数值模拟的汾河二库对晋祠泉岩溶水系统渗漏补给作用研究

汾河二库的下闸蓄水，改变了晋祠泉域汾河地表水对岩溶水的渗漏补给条件，对区域岩溶水流场变化有着长远的影响。本研究通过系统梳理库区水文地质条件，勾画地表水渗漏补给岩溶水范围，考虑地层岩性、蓄水高度等因素，确定二库不同蓄水水位下晋祠泉域获渗漏量占比；构建晋祠泉三维岩溶地下水流模型，研究二库渗漏对泉域岩溶地下水补给作用，并预测不同蓄水情景下晋祠泉口水位变化趋势。结果表明:晋祠泉域获渗漏量占比随二库蓄水位非线性变化，最低为92.8%，在二库蓄水位达902 m后稳定在93.7%，而渗漏量与二库蓄水高度呈正相关；泉域岩溶水径流区受渗漏补给作用最显著，其次为排泄区、北部补给区；渗漏补给作用下，地下水位回升值受二库水位和补水距离影响；维持设计水位（905.7 m）和2017年水位（895.9~902.4 m）时，预计晋祠泉口水位分别在2021年7月和2023年1月达到泉口高程。      

KARSYS: a pragmatic approach to karst hydrogeological system conceptualisation. Assessment of groundwater reserves and resources in Switzerland

An approach is presented for the hydrogeological conceptualisation of karst systems. The KARSYS approach helps hydrogeologists working in karst regions to address in a pragmatic and efficient way the three following questions. (1) Where does the water of a karst spring come from? (2) Through which underground routes does it flow? (3) What are the groundwater reserves and where are they? It is based on a three dimensional model of the carbonate aquifer geometry (3D geological model) coupled to a series of simple fundamental principles of karst hydraulics. This provides, within a limited effort, a consistent hydrogeological conceptual model of karst flow systems within any investigation area. The level of detail can be adjusted according to the targeted degree of confidence. Two examples of its application are presented; the approach was first applied with a low level of detail on a national scale in order to assess the groundwater reserves in karst aquifers in Switzerland, suggesting a groundwater volume of 120 km³. On a regional scale, it was applied with a higher level of detail to some selected karst systems in order to assess their hydropower potential. The KARSYS approach may provide very useful information for water management improvement in karst regions (vulnerability assessment, impact assessment, water supply, flood hazards, landslides, etc.). It leads, in a very cost-effective manner, to a new and highly didactic representation of karst systems as well as to new concepts concerning the delineation of catchment areas in karst regions.     

南方岩溶地区1∶5万水文地质环境地质调查技术要点分析

通过总结南方岩溶地区水文地质环境地质综合调查和地下水开发利用示范6个方面成果,得出南方岩溶地区水文地质环境地质条件具有10个特性:岩溶发育受层组结构类型、地质构造格局和水动力条件等因素控制的综合性,岩溶地下水分布的非均一性,岩溶含水介质由孔、隙、缝、管、洞构成的多重性,岩溶地下水流运动的多相性,岩溶地下水动态变化的剧变性,岩溶水资源时间分布的季节性,干旱与洪涝的交替性,岩溶地下水污染的隐蔽性,岩溶地下水的深埋性,岩溶地下水与生态经济的相关性;论述了对碳酸盐岩层组结构类型、构造演化与岩溶发育期次、岩溶形态组合关系、表层岩溶带、岩溶地下水系统、岩溶地下河、主要环境地质问题和岩溶水资源开发利用条件8个关键科学问题调查研究的技术要点。      

Flash flood mitigation as a positive consequence of anthropogenic forcing on the groundwater resource in a karst catchment

The Mediterranean coastal region is prone to high-intensity rainfall events that are frequently associated with devastating flash floods. This paper discusses the role of a karst aquifer system in the flash floods of a Mediterranean river, the Lez river. Most of the Lez river watershed is located on karst terrains where interactions between surface water and groundwater take place. During extreme rainfall events, the presence of fractures and well-developed karst features in carbonate terrains enhances the infiltration processes and involves the concentration of the recharge into highly organized and permeable flow paths. The groundwater, therefore, quickly moves towards the natural outlets of the karst system. The influence of the Lez karst aquifer system on the associated river floods dynamics is analysed while considering the spatially distributed rainfall, as well as the time series of the groundwater level within the aquifer and of the Lez river discharge measured at various gauging stations. Special attention is given to the relative importance of the surface and underground processes involved in flash flood genesis. It is shown that the karst groundwater contributes to flash floods under certain conditions, while high-rate pumping within the karst aquifer, which generates significant drawdown, may mitigate flash floods under other conditions.     

贵州福泉市双眼井泉小流域流量估算及排洪方案建议

贵州双眼井泉小流域为一地表分水岭与地下分水岭不闭合的岩溶峰丛洼地小流域。双眼井泉主要通过落水洞、溶蚀裂隙接受大气降水直接补给,水量动态变化较大,幅度从枯季的0.2L/s到雨季的35.5L/s不等,最突出的是2007年暴雨期间水量骤增,曾导致流域内磷石膏堆场子坝溃坝。为解决该流域防洪工程设计问题,本文在岩溶水文地质调查分析的基础上,提出了在缺少长观资料的情况下,以隔水层作为双眼井泉地下汇水边界、以当地丰水期最大径流模数计算得到的流量27.5L/s再乘上相应的安全系数得到的流量作为防洪工程过水断面设计依据,并提出了在双眼井冲沟口940m高程处新建一座拦水坝的排洪方案。经3年多的实践检验,设计流量计算合理,方案制定科学,工程运营安全。      

中国北方岩溶区地下岩溶水库-地表水库联合调蓄

从中国北方岩溶水资源环境动力系统特征出发 ,论证北方岩溶区地下岩溶水库地表水库联合调蓄的意义。以济南泉域为例 ,探讨了封闭千佛山断裂 ,开发西郊地下岩溶水库和地表水库联合调蓄 ,以达到保泉供水目的的可行性。结果表明 ,在中国北方岩溶区进行地下岩溶水库地表水库联合调蓄 ,将可有效地截取地表洪水 ,增加地下水开采量 ,调节地下水与地表水资源环境。从而为解决我国北方岩溶水资源紧缺问题提供一条有效途径。     

The impact of salt diapirs on the quality of carbonate karst waters,Bastak, Iran

The Gavbast karstic aquifer located in southern Iran is in direct contact with an exposed salt diapir. To assess the influence of the diapir on the quality of groundwater in the karstic aquifer, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, flow rate, temperature and major ion concentrations were measured at 57 sampling sites, including springs, surface waters and wells. A conceptual model of groundwater flow is proposed for the Gavbast karstic aquifer based on the geological setting, water budget, local base of erosion, and hydrochemistry of the sampling sites. The model suggests two subbasins in the Gavbast Anticline draining into two distinct discharging alluvial sections. Unexpectedly, groundwater discharging from the carbonate Gavbast aquifer is saline or brackish and water is of chloride type. The study indicates that the source of salinity of the Gavbast aquifers is infiltration of surface diapir-derived brine into the aquifer. The contribution of the diapir brine in the Gavbast karst aquifer is calculated about 4 L/s, using chloride mass balance. Construction of salt basins to evaporate brine discharging from the diapir springs is proposed to reduce the salinity of karst water. A row of strategically placed wells in the Gavbast karst aquifer would potentially exploit large volumes of fresh groundwater before it is contaminated by the salt. Such low-cost remediation should allow the agricultural exploitation of 40 km² of currently barren land.     

Inferring groundwater flow and recharge from time series analysis of storm responses in a karst aquifer of southeastern Kentucky (USA)

Epigenic karst systems exhibit strong connectivity to surface recharge. In land use dominated by extensive agriculture and farming, epigenic karst aquifers are highly vulnerable to surface contaminants from point and nonpoint sources. Currently, the karstic landscapes of the southeastern Kentucky platform (USA) are impacted by agriculture and the rapid proliferation of concentrated-animal-feeding operations. Analysis of karst aquifer responses to storm events provides qualitative information regarding aquifer–recharge flow paths and groundwater residence time, and knowledge of spatial and temporal variations in recharge and flow is crucial to the understanding of the fate of surface contaminants. Time-series correlation analyses on long-term physicochemical data recorded at the outlet of Grayson Gunnar Cave, an epigenic karst system located along the Cumberland escarpment in southeastern Kentucky, revealed the existence of two separate conduit branches responding 4–8 h apart from each other. Recorded storm response times range from 4 h for flushing and dilution to 7 h for recovery. An estimated 6 million L of stored groundwater is discharged from both branches during major storms, and the fastest responding branch accounts for the majority (80%) of the groundwater reserve being discharged through the spring. As evidenced by groundwater residence time (7 days), recharge is likely characterized by localized infiltration of rain water from subsurface sinkholes to the conduit branches with no contribution of regional or lateral groundwater flow.     

Extreme hydrological events in karst areas of Slovenia,the case of the Unica River basin

The study presents natural hazards in Slovenia's karst, focusing on flooding in karst poljes. A specific study was done on the flood dynamics of two typical and connected karst poljes (Cerknica and Planina) of the Classical Karst region. In the case of particularly extreme hydrological conditions in the autumn of 2008, detailed analyses of the recharge-discharge regime and the interrelationship of flooding on the two poljes were done. Daily precipitation, discharge, and water level values from several monitoring sites were analyzed and cross-correlated, and additional hydrological analyses were done using a digital elevation model in order to acquire water level increase and decrease intensity, flood water volumes, and the extent of flooding and to understand the conditions controlling karst flooding. The results reveal that the hydrological functioning of the studied karst poljes is influenced by the hydrogeological and temporary hydrological conditions in the catchment area. The response of the binary karst system (i.e., the influence of autogenic and allogenic recharge) is especially distinct. The study shows that during extremely intense recharge, the reactions of karst aquifer systems to precipitation are as rapid as the response of surface waters (the water level of Cerknica Lake increased with an intensity of 38-63 cm/day or 55 m3/s respectively) while retention capacities are negligible. In contrast to flash floods, floods in karst areas may last from several weeks to several months. For the observed period a three-dimensional simulation of the flooding was made. At the maximum recorded water level, the volume of water on the Cerknica polje was 51 million m³, and 26 million m³ on the Planina polje. The maximum extent of flooding on the Cerknica polje was 23 km² and on the Planina polje 9.5 km². On the basis of the study, information was provided regarding future hazard mitigation. However, the study demonstrated that a sufficiently dense monitoring network is necessary to predict the occurrence and duration of floods with greater certainty.     

河间隐伏型岩溶裂隙含水系统演化的数值模拟

为揭示隐伏型岩溶含水系统在不同边界条件与介质特征下的发育状况,基于地下水渗流和碳酸盐岩溶蚀理论构建耦合裂隙网络渗流与碳酸盐岩溶蚀的岩溶裂隙网络溶蚀扩展模型,模拟再现了河间隐伏型岩溶含水系统平面上发育演化过程。结果显示:岩溶系统发育过程中流量变化呈现三个阶段:第Ⅰ阶段为缓慢层流阶段,流量增速为2.2×10 -6 mL·(s·a) -1,持续时间与初始水头差呈对数关系;第Ⅱ阶段为极快速紊流阶段,流量增速为5.5×10 2 mL·(s·a) -1,持续时间与初始水头差呈线性关系;第Ⅲ阶段为快速紊流阶段,流量增速为26 mL·(s·a) -1。优势裂隙的存在使得岩溶裂隙网络溶蚀演化加快,非均质系统进入极快速紊流阶段所用时间较均质系统缩短了53%,裂隙溶蚀扩展的速度加快了12.5%。      

多级水流系统耦合下深部岩溶分异研究——以川东隔挡式构造区中梁山背斜南段为例

新构造运动背景下,干、支流对地壳抬升反应速率的差异,导致具有不同排泄作用的河谷广泛组合,形成多级地下水流动系统,地下水作为岩溶含水系统发育的主要控制因素,多级水流系统的空间耦合影响岩溶发育分布规律。文章首先根据中梁山背斜南段岩溶槽谷横向沟谷的发育特征,将岩溶槽谷划分为渗流区、分流区、外流区;结合横向沟谷控排作用与地形指数,分析多级水流系统耦合的空间分异特征。其次通过隧道建设背景下地表水漏失、隧道涌水情况及隧道施工揭露岩溶现象验证在多级水流系统耦合效应下深部岩溶发育特征。结果表明:渗流区以区域水流系统为主,隧道涌水量巨大,水流通道连通性良好,地表水基本干涸,深部岩溶发育强烈;分流区除了近河谷地带以局部水流系统为主、深部岩溶发育较弱以外,宽缓分水岭地带的地下水流动仍然以区域性流动为主,深部岩溶较发育,隧道涌水量较大,地表水与深部岩溶地下水水力联系较好,隧道建设对地表水影响严重;外流区以局部浅循环为主,深部岩溶发育程度弱,深部岩溶水与地表水水力联系较弱,地表水漏失程度一般。本研究不但拓宽了托特多级水流系统的应用领域,为岩溶发育理论研究提供了新的角度,同时为深埋岩溶隧道建设的危险性评价及引发的环境负效应研究提供理论指导。