Flood insurance arrangements in the European Union for future flood risk under climate and socioeconomic change

Flood risk will increase in many areas around the world due to climate change and increase in economic exposure. This implies that adequate flood insurance schemes are needed to adapt to increasing flood risk and to minimise welfare losses for households in flood-prone areas. Flood insurance markets may need reform to offer sufficient and affordable financial protection and incentives for risk reduction. Here, we present the results of a study that aims to evaluate the ability of flood insurance arrangements in Europe to cope with trends in flood risk, using criteria that encompass common elements of the policy debate on flood insurance reform. We show that the average risk-based flood insurance premium could double between 2015 and 2055 in the absence of more risk reduction by households exposed to flooding. We show that part of the expected future increase in flood risk could be limited by flood insurance mechanisms that better incentivise risk reduction by policyholders, which lowers vulnerability. The affordability of flood insurance can be improved by introducing the key features of public-private partnerships (PPPs), which include public reinsurance, limited premium cross-subsidisation between low- and high-risk households, and incentives for policyholder-level risk reduction. These findings were evaluated in a comprehensive sensitivity analysis and support ongoing reforms in Europe and abroad that move towards risk-based premiums and link insurance with risk reduction, strengthen purchase requirements, and engage in multi-stakeholder partnerships.     

气候变化背景下的洪涝风险稳健决策方法评述

分析了深度不确定性内涵及其特点,包括情景不确定、决策后果不确定和决策方案不确定,指出了传统洪涝风险决策方法过于依赖于气候变化预测结果,未能充分考虑深度不确定性及提供稳健决策。给出了国际上处理深度不确定性的稳健决策方法理论基础,并介绍了被广泛应用于洪涝风险领域的鲁棒决策、信息差距及适应对策路径3种稳健决策方法。对比分析发现,鲁棒决策法有完备的适应措施定量评估体系但计算量大且不易理解;信息差距法可解决不能以概率表式的不确定性问题,而未考虑适应对策的失效情景;适应对策路径法提供可视化的决策路径,未能充分考虑社会经济的不确定性。提出未来可综合鲁棒决策和适应对策路径优点,为减少不确定性、降低洪涝灾害风险、制定适应气候变化策略提供参考。     

Precaution and proportionality in the management of global environmental change

The precautionary principle is a mandate to tread cautiously when managing novel threats to the environment or human health. A major obstacle when applying the principle at the international level is disagreement about how precautionary efforts should be constrained to ensure that policy costs are proportional to the attained level of protection. Proportionality is an unresolved question when preliminary evidence precludes decision-makers from assigning probabilities over future events. The paper suggests practical analytical tools for communicating ex ante trade-offs when probabilities are unavailable. The tools could be used to facilitate discussion and compromise when implementing precautionary decisions in international settings where cooperation is important. The approach is demonstrated in an application to climate policy that uses the integrated assessment model DICE (Nordhaus, 2008). The paper also situates the task of precautionary decision-making within the broader context of implementing a precautionary response at the international level.     

人口与GDP空间化技术支持下的暴雨洪涝灾害承灾体脆弱性分析

基于统计年鉴资料和土地利用数据,分别建立人口、GDP空间化模型,模拟南京市浦口区人口和GDP的空间分布。并结合暴雨洪涝历史灾情数据,探索区县级行政区域暴雨洪涝灾害承灾体脆弱性风险评估技术方法,最终获得100 m×100 m格网的浦口区暴雨洪涝灾害承灾体脆弱性空间分布图。研究结果表明:(1)人口、GDP的空间化模拟结果,既与各镇街统计数据保持一致,又反映了各镇街内部的人口、GDP分布的空间变化,可以为承灾体脆弱性评估提供精细化、可靠的数据源。(2)浦口区暴雨洪涝灾害承灾体脆弱性高风险区,分布在东北部经济较为发达的城镇街道而老山山脉和沿江内陆滩涂地区脆弱性风险较低。     

冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷气候特征和环境条件

为了研究冷涡与辽宁龙卷的关系,揭示冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷发生的特征,利用1951—2020年辽宁省龙卷观测和灾情数据以及欧洲中期天气预报中心ERA5大气再分析资料,收集整理冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷个例,对比冷涡背景下EF2—4级(EF2+)和EF0—1级(EF1?)龙卷物理量参数的差异.结果表明:(1)冷涡背景下辽宁龙卷主要出现...     

The interfaces of public and private adaptation: Lessons from flooding in the Deerfield River Watershed

Successful adaptation to climate risks will depend on the outcomes of many coordinated and uncoordinated actions. Key will be ensuring public and private adaptations undertaken at a variety of scales do not undermine one another. To improve understandings of how adaptive responses accumulate, we investigate interactions between public and private efforts to mitigate flood hazards in the Deerfield River Watershed, located in Western Massachusetts, USA. Through interviews, we uncover the manner in which private adaptations, undertaken by landowners seeking to protect their land from flood impacts, are both determined in response to and have an effect on public adaptations seeking to address flood impacts across the watershed. Landowners respond to public adaptations based on their perceptions of the appropriateness of adaptive pathways including how they view the effectiveness of adaptive action and how the actions fit with the social contract. As a result, the interface between public and private adaptations takes various forms: commutable, attenuating, synergistic, or countervailing. Our findings underscore how, in areas with high geo-physical connectivity and where responsibility is dispersed across private and public entities, anticipating and responding to multiple interfaces between public and private adaptations is needed for public adaptations to achieve the best cumulative outcomes.     

Assessing vulnerability of selected farming communities in the Philippines based on a behavioural model of agent's adaptation to global environmental change

Behavioural models that allow simple representation of the complexity of human–environment links are important in vulnerability assessment because they allow the analysis of human adaptive processes in a changing environment. This paper applies an agent-based framework that considers the behavioural model of farmers in three villages in a municipality in the Philippines. Agent-based modelling is a useful policy tool for simulating the effects of different adaptation options on reducing vulnerability because it allows representation of not only the dynamic changes in climate and market but also the dynamic adaptive process of different groups of communities to the impacts of these changes. Model simulations of adaptation options under various global change scenarios showed that production support would significantly reduce future vulnerability only if complemented with appropriate market support. It is thus important for policy to provide a complementary bundle of adaptation measures. Lack of money and information are the most important reasons for not applying available technical adaptation measures, which currently hinder reduction of vulnerability in selected villages in the municipality. Social networks, which play an important role in adapting to environmental changes, are limited to relatives and neighbours, who are important sources of informal credit.     

Adaptive and risk-based approaches to climate change and the management of uncertainty and institutional risk: The case of future flooding in England

This paper focuses on how scientific uncertainties about future peak flood flows and sea level rises are accounted for in long term strategic planning processes to adapt inland and coastal flood risk management in England to climate change. Combining key informant interviews (n = 18) with documentary analysis, it explores the institutional tensions between adaptive management approaches emphasising openness to uncertainty and to alternative policy options on the one hand and risk-based ones that close them down by transforming uncertainties into calculable risks whose management can be rationalized through cost-benefit analysis and nationally consistent, risk-based priority setting on the other hand. These alternative approaches to managing uncertainty about the first-order risks to society from future flooding are shaped by institutional concerns with managing the second-order, ‘institutional’ risks of criticism and blame arising from accountability for discharging those first-order risk management responsibilities. In the case of river flooding the poorly understood impacts of future climate change were represented with a simplistic adjustment to peak flow estimates, which proved robust in overcoming institutional resistance to making precautionary allowances for climate change in risk-based flood management, at least in part because its scientific limitations were acknowledged only partially. By contrast in the case of coastal flood risk management, greater scientific confidence led to successively more elaborate guidance on how to represent the science, which in turn led to inconsistency in implementation and increased the institutional risks involved in taking the uncertain effects of future sea level rise into account in adaptation planning and flood risk management. Comparative analysis of these two cases then informs some wider reflections about the tensions between adaptive and risk-based approaches, the role of institutional risk in climate change adaptation, and the importance of such institutional dynamics in shaping the framing uncertainties and policy responses to scientific knowledge about them.     

Forecasting environmental contamination development in the coastal and water area of the Russian far east under the effect of the radiation factor and industrial anthropogenic load under conditions of catastrophes

Studies of seasonal variability (including the winter season) of the main hydrodynamic, sedimentation, physicochemical and other characteristics of the Chazhma Bay of the Sea of Japan, in the zone of the atomic submarine K-431 nuclear accident of 1985 that influence the radioecological state of the environment was carried out. The substance fluxes required for estimating radionuclide balance are defined based on the expedition survey of radioactivity of bottom sediments, sea water, and suspension in the epicenter of the accident and over the water area of the bay together with hydrophysical, sedimentation, and meteorological observations. Modern trace methods and 3D prognostic modeling of interaction of natural and anthropogenic processes of evolution of radioactive contamination of the bottom sediments in the zone of the atomic submarine accident are used; a new approach to estimating the maximum contamination of the marine environment is proposed.     

2000—2020年呼伦贝尔地区归一化植被指数时空变化及其对气候的响应

利用2000—2020年MOD13Q1和气象观测数据,结合Sen趋势分析、M-K显著性检验、变异系数、Hurst指数、相关系数等对呼伦贝尔地区归一化植被指数(NDVI)时空变化及气候响应进行分析。结果表明：呼伦贝尔地区多年生长季平均NDVI为0.63,平均年变化倾向率为0.028/10 a,大部分地区呈增加趋势,其中大兴安岭森林大部及岭西耕地增加显著。呼伦贝尔地区生长季NDVI的平均变异系数为0.08,其中呼伦贝尔草原西部的波动较大。Hurst指数表明,呼伦贝尔地区生长季NDVI整体变化呈反持续性趋势,结合现有NDVI变化趋势,未来将呈下降趋势,对生态环境的保护工作较为不利。大兴安岭森林生长季NDVI与气温呈正相关,耕地与草原区呈负相关,而呼伦贝尔大部分地区的生长季NDVI与降水普遍呈正相关,其中呼伦贝尔草原和大兴安岭两麓耕地的生长季NDVI与降水相关显著,说明气温是制约北部大兴安岭森林生长的主要因素,而降水是制约呼伦贝尔草原生态平衡和农牧业发展的主要因素。     

Parameterizations of surface radiation in the semiarid grasslands of Inner Mongolia under clear-sky conditions using MODIS data

A set of improved and efficient radiation parameterization schemes for surface radiation balance components under clear- sky conditions was developed by using general surface measurements and MODIS data. The set of schemes was then adapted for regions similar to the present study sites under different grazing intensities and varying degrees of drought in the semiarid grasslands of Inner Mongolia. Specifically, we mainly improved two schemes for estimating downward shortwave and longwave radiation at the surface, which could be applied to regions with certain degrees of drought. The validation datasets were from ground-based observations at various grazing sites during the growing season （May to September） of different drought years, 2005 and 2006. Through comparisons of parameterized versus measured radiation values, the increased or modified factors in the original schemes demonstrated improved estimation accuracy, and the rationalities of input parameters and variables were analyzed. The regional instantaneous net radiation estimations had root-mean-square errors of less than 30 W m-2 compared with ground measurements at the sites during the study period. The statistical results showed the improved schemes are suitable for estimating surface net radiation in regional semiarid areas during the growing season. Analyses of the sensitivity of the schemes to corresponding variables were conducted to ascertain the major error sources of the schemes and potential variables for improving the performance of the schemes in agreement with observations.     

苏北地区超级单体风暴环境条件与雷达回波特征

利用江苏3个探空站、5部CINRAD/SA型多普勒天气雷达、地面常规与加密自动站等观测资料,分析2005—2009年苏北地区72个超级单体风暴发生的环境条件和多普勒天气雷达回波特征。探空和地面资料分析表明,苏北地区超级单体风暴可以产生在差别相当大的环境条件下:强降水超级单体通常产生在对流有效位能较高和垂直风切变中等的环境下,经典超级单体更多地产生在对流有效位能较高和垂直风切变较强环境下;产生大冰雹和(或)雷暴大风的超级单体,无论是经典还是强降水型超级单体,其环境特征均为0℃层、-20℃等温线高度较低,850—500 hPa温差较大,低层露点不高;产生龙卷特别是F2级以上强龙卷超级单体环境特征常常表现为低层(0—1 km)垂直风切变大、850—500 hPa温差相对较小、抬升凝结高度低、低层露点高,这类超级单体在产生龙卷的同时也常常伴有短时强降水甚至极端短时强降水。多普勒天气雷达资料分析表明,苏北地区超级单体具有持久的中气旋、回波墙和有界弱回波区或弱回波区结构,可以产生大冰雹、龙卷、短时强降水和下击暴流等强对流天气;超级单体的类型主要有经典超级单体、强降水超级单体以及强降水超级单体组成的复合风暴。经典超级单体一般为孤立风暴,中气旋多数情况下位于其右后侧(相对于风暴移动方向),低层有明显的钩状回波和入流缺口,入流缺口之上存在宽大的有界弱回波区,其上有强反射率因子组成的风暴核,最强的反射率因子可达75 dBz;强降水超级单体前侧有入流缺口和旁边粗胖的凸起部分与中气旋相伴,与经典超级单体的钩状回波在形态上区别明显,同样存在有界弱回波区或弱回波区,中气旋环流中有明显的降水回波;强降水超级单体组成的复合风暴内中气旋一般位于其前侧,主要结构与强降水超级单体相似,生命史较长。超级单体结构属性分析表明,绝大多数情况下,苏北地区超级单体风暴的最大反射率因子为55—76 dBz,基于单体的垂直累积液态水含量(VIL)为35—90 kg/m~2,垂直累积液态水含量超过60 kg/m~2时风暴有可能产生大冰雹,特别是在4—6月,冰雹直径随着垂直累积液态水含量的增大而增大,因此,垂直累积液态水含量季节性高值可以用来辨别产生大冰雹的超级单体;绝大多数情况下,中气旋旋转速度大于15 m/s,直径在3—10 km,持续时间超过40 min;中气旋的底越低,直径越小,产生龙卷的可能性越大。     

More than planning: Diversity and drivers of institutional adaptation under climate change in 96 major cities

A key challenge for effective, ongoing urban climate adaptation is to adapt institutions within urban governance. While an extensive foundation of empirical knowledge on urban climate adaptation has accumulated over the last decade, our image of institutional adaptation continues to be dominated by a focus on planning. Whilst understandable, this can obscure a fuller range of areas in which institutional adaptation to climate change is being pursued. Furthermore, methodological path dependency in large-N analysis via a common focus on analyzing formal planning documents risks a skewed perspective as such documents may only offer a partial view. Building on the rich range of work to date assessing climate adaptation in cities, and notwithstanding continued major gaps such as in small-medium cities, we now need to find ways to examine the diversity of institutional adaptation occurring in practice, and to comparatively draw on the situated interpretive knowledge of case experts within individual cities to do so. With this aim in mind, this paper explores institutional adaptation in a specific domain (urban water) in a sample of 96 major cities across six continents through a survey of 319 case experts, examining the diversity of institutional adaptation across contexts and exploratively probing its drivers. Findings show that multiple forms of institutional adaptation are being jointly pursued in cities across all continents, leaning towards ‘softer’ rather than ‘harder’ forms, but nonetheless revealing a wide range of activity. Patterns in drivers suggest a political explanation for institutional adaptation (e.g. involving change agents and political pressure) rather than a rational one (e.g. involving response to climate-related risks and/or extreme events). Overall, there is a need to combine parsimony with expanded interpretive sensibility in advancing large-N research on institutional adaptation diversity in comparative perspective.     

九华山雾日时间变化特征及其形成的气象条件分析

利用1991—2010年九华山不同海拔高度上的国家气象观测站及区域气象观测站资料, 分析九华山雾日时间变化特征及其形成的气象条件。结果表明: 近10年来, 九华山山坡雾日年际变化较大, 并逐年减少, 山脚雾日逐年增多; 山脚季平均雾日, 秋(8 d)、 冬(7 d)季多于春(3 d)、 夏(2 d)季, 而山坡表现为冬(50 d)、 春(45 d)季雾日多于夏(27 d)、 秋(26 d)季; 平地雾在05—07时最易形成, 山坡雾在04—08时最易形成, 山脚雾主要在08—10时消散, 山坡雾主要在09—11时消散, 两者持续时间也有较大差异; 夜间降温≥6℃时出现的雾日占总雾日的74.4%, 气温日较差≥7.0℃时出现的雾日占总雾日的80.9%, 65.2%的雾日前一日20时至当日08时平均相对湿度在90%以上, 雾日多出现在风速＜3 m·s^-1的条件下, 83.9%的雾日近地面有逆温层存在。未饱和湿空气随气流进入喇叭口后, 湿度条件发生改变, 有利于在喇叭口底部区域形成雾, 山区风场辐合作用有利于雾的形成与维持。     

风险管理视角下鄱阳湖流域暴雨洪涝灾害防御对策与建议

分析了鄱阳湖流域暴雨洪涝灾害分布情况,指出暴雨洪涝灾害防御在组织体系、部门联动、风险区划、防御规划、人员队伍、预警发布、灾防意识等方面存在的不足,最后提出了开展风险评估、制定防御规划、修订应急预案、健全法规体系、落实工程措施、完善组织体系、建立专业队伍、加强预警发布、构建联动机制、做好风险转移、开展科普宣传等针对性的改进措施和建议。     

Geographical imbalances and divides in the scientific production of climate change knowledge

Studies on scientific production of climate change knowledge show a geographical bias against the developing and more vulnerable regions of the world. If there is limited knowledge exchange between regions, this may deepen global knowledge divides and, thus, potentially hamper adaptive capacities. Consequently, there is a need to further understand this bias, and, particularly, link it with the exchange of knowledge across borders. We use a world-wide geographical distribution of author affiliations in >15,000 scientific climate change publications to show that (1) research production mainly takes place in richer, institutionally well-developed countries with cooler climates and high climate footprints, and (2) the network of author affiliations is structured into distinct modules of countries with strong common research interests, but with little knowledge exchange between modules. These modules are determined mainly by geographical proximity, common climates, and similar political and economic characteristics. This indicates that political-economic, social and educational-scientific initiatives targeted to enhance local research production and collaborations across geographical-climate module borders may help diminish global knowledge divides. We argue that this could strengthen adaptive capacity in the most vulnerable regions of the world.     

合肥市不同天气条件下大气气溶胶粒子理化特征分析

为探讨合肥市霾天气大气气溶胶粒子的组成及来源,在2012-2013年代表性月份用安德森分级采样器在合肥市区进行大气气溶胶粒子采样,并分析各样本中水溶性无机离子成分(NH4+、Mg2+、Ca2+、Na+、 K+、NO2-、NO3-、Cl-、SO42-)。根据同期气象资料把采样背景天气分为晴空、雾、霾、轻雾等4类,详细分析了这4种天气下大气细粒子(指PM2.1)和粗粒子(粒径大于2.1 μm部分)的浓度、组成以及主要离子组分的异同。结果表明:(1)观测期间晴空天多对应空气质量优良,雾、霾天对应轻度到重度污染,从晴空天到雾、霾天,PM2.1浓度大幅度上升,且其占总悬浮颗粒物(TSP)的比例显著上升。(2)从晴空天到雾、霾天,水溶性无机离子质量占PM2.1质量浓度的比例上升,分别为46%(晴空)、67%(霾)、61%(雾)、80%(轻雾)。PM2.1中水溶性无机离子浓度居前3位的雾、霾天是SO42-、NO3-和NH4+,晴空天为SO42-、Ca2+、NO3-。(3)与晴空天相比,霾天PM2.1中水溶性无机离子浓度变化倍数最大的是NO3-(为晴空的6.1倍,下同)、其次是NH4+(3.6倍)和SO42-(3.0倍);雾和轻雾天PM2.1中水溶性无机离子浓度变化最大的是NO3-(>10倍)、其次是NH4+(>5倍)和Cl-(>4.0倍)。(4)4种天气下,与人为污染有关的离子(SO42-、NO3-、Cl-、NH4+)尺度谱存在显著差异,呈双峰型、单峰型、三峰型等;而Ca2+的尺度谱无明显变化,基本上都呈双峰型。(5)在粒径3.3 μm以下,阳、阴离子平衡较好,随着尺度增大变差,且晴空天比雾、霾天差。主要阴离子浓度间、Cl-和Na+间的比值和相关性,在晴空天和雾、霾天差异较大。      

气候变化背景下湖北省高温干旱复合灾害变化特征

利用湖北省76个国家气象站1961—2022年地面气象观测资料,基于气象干旱综合监测指数(Meteorological Drought Composite Index,MCI)和有效降水指数(Effective Precipitation,EP)识别湖北省历年干旱和洪涝过程,分析近62 a旱涝过程频次时空变化和旱涝年、旱涝转换特征以及2010年以来旱涝特点。结果表明：湖北省旱涝频发区总体呈东涝西旱、南涝北旱的片状分布。干旱和暴雨洪涝发生频次分别呈现波动式下降、上升趋势。干旱主要发生在春季和伏秋季,发生频次总体呈减少趋势,但夏秋干旱以及极端干旱有趋多增强的态势;暴雨洪涝主要集中在夏季,发生频次呈增多趋势。旱涝年年际间呈现连旱2~4 a、连涝2~3 a或旱涝交替的特征,部分年份年内旱涝并存、旱涝急转,2010年以来无旱涝并存年。旱涝转换站数年际间波动较大,呈现5个阶段性上升特征,各递增阶段最大站数呈递减趋势。2010年以来旱涝呈现极端性增强、骤发性增多及连旱连涝的特点。

     

河北省棉花连阴雨灾害定量化评估指标与风险分析

利用河北省棉区1981—2015年40个气象站逐日气象资料、农业气象观测站棉花农情、连阴雨灾情、棉花产量资料,分析连阴雨过程特征及其对棉花生长的影响,修订和完善连阴雨灾害指标;采用数理统计方法获取历史连阴雨产量灾损率、筛选关键致灾因子,采用权重系数法构建连阴雨强度指数,并建立基于强度指数的灾损评估模型;利用有序样本聚类分析法划分连阴雨强度等级;依据风险分析原理,构建连阴雨风险指数并进行风险区划。结果表明：建立的强度指数能够客观反映连阴雨灾害强度,灾损评估模型评估效果较好。棉花播种出苗期连阴雨发生概率低（0.076）、造成的损失小（平均产量灾损率0.09%）;现蕾至吐絮期连阴雨影响较大,发生概率和造成的灾损率由大到小依次为花铃期（0.447,17.1%） > 现蕾期（0.394,11.7%） > 吐絮期（0.237,7.2%）。近年来,现蕾期连阴雨发生站次减少,对棉花影响减弱,花铃期和吐絮期发生站次增加,尤其是吐絮期增加明显,成为连阴雨灾害影响棉花生长的主要时期。现蕾期和花铃期连阴雨高风险区主要分布在非主棉区,其中现蕾期高风险区分布在保定北部及以北棉区,花铃期高风险区分布在保定北部及以北棉区和石家庄、邢台、邯郸三市西部棉区;吐絮期高风险区分布在保定西南部、衡水西部、石家庄及其以南棉区,部分地区为主棉区。