应用E-ε湍流动能闭合湖泊热力学过程模型对东太湖湖-气交换的模拟

采用考虑沉水植物影响的E-ε湍流动能闭合湖泊热力学过程模型,模拟2013年8月东太湖湖-气交换过程,并利用太湖的站点观测数据对模型进行了验证。太湖水温的模拟值与观测值吻合较好,模型计算的各层水温与观测值相比,均方根误差均未超过1℃。同时模型也较好地模拟出太湖表面感热通量和潜热通量,潜热通量的模拟值与观测值的标准差为54.7 W/m2。由于湖水较浅,太湖的水温层结会明显受到天气状况的影响。晴朗小风条件下的湖水呈现显著的热分层现象,当风速为0.8 m/s,高层和底层的温差达到7.9℃。大风天气条件驱动较强的水体湍流混合,水温的热分层消失,风速为12 m/s,湖泊上层与底层的水温差仅0.12℃。此外,模拟结果较好地呈现出了东太湖沉水植物的存在通过增大湖体消光系数,减小到达湖体内部的热量,并增加对湖水的阻力,影响湖体中湍流动能的分布,并进而影响湖水温度的分布。综上所述,该模型能够较好地模拟出浅水大湖湖-气交换的过程。      

Evaluation of the WRF-Lake Model over Two Major Freshwater Lakes in China

This paper evaluates the performance of the Weather Research and Forecasting(WRF) model coupled with a lake scheme over the Lake Poyang and Lake Dongting regions. We choose several cases with different weather characteristics, including winter with/without precipitation and summer with/without precipitation, and conduct a series of experiments(without the lake model, with the default lake model, and with a calibrated lake model that adjusts the water absorption, extinction coefficients, and surface roughness length) for each case. The results show that the performance of the lake model is significantly affected by the weather conditions. For the winter with precipitation cases, the performance of the default lake model is even worse than without the lake model, but the calibrated lake model can obviously reduce the biases of 2-m temperature and dew-point temperature. Although the performance of the default and new calibrated models is intricate for other cases, the new calibrated model has prominent advantages for 2-m dew-point temperature. Moreover, a long-term simulation of five months also shows that the new calibrated coupled lake model performs better than the default one. These imply that the new calibrated coupled lake model is more suitable to be used in studies of the effects of Lake Poyang and Lake Dongting on regional weather and climate.     

一维热扩散湖模式在太湖的应用研究

利用在太湖获得的2010年8月11-28日的观测资料研究了一维热扩散湖模式在太湖的适用性,通过对比模拟进一步研究了影响太湖湖表温度模拟的主要因子。该湖模式对太湖最初的模拟结果并不理想,模拟的湖表面温度与观测有较大的系统性偏差,温度的日变化幅度与观测相比也偏小。通过分析该模式对太湖的模拟效果不理想的可能原因,针对太湖的生态环境和污染情况,设计了18个测试参数的敏感性试验,从敏感性试验的结果分析得到,适用于太湖的、依赖于湖泊类型的3个参数应做如下修改:消光系数（η₀）应放大3倍,湖泊表层吸收的太阳辐射系数（β）应取0.8,粗糙长度（z₀）采用公式计算得到。用新得到的适用于太湖的3个参数,模拟得到的结果与最初的模拟结果和观测资料对比,发现采用新的参数后,模拟结果比最初的模拟结果有了很大的改进,模拟的湖表温度基本接近观测,模拟的湖水垂直剖面时间序列图也跟观测吻合得较好,随之的感热、潜热通量的模拟也都与观测接近。最后,对输入湖模式的主要大气参量（太阳辐射、2 m气温及风场）±10%的误差引起的模式模拟的湖表面温度误差进行分析,结果表明该湖模式对大气强迫场的误差敏感度不高;相比之下,模拟结果对风场敏感性最小,对辐射和气温的敏感度相当。     

夏季太湖局地气候效应的数值模拟研究

利用WRF模式,通过数值模拟试验研究了夏季太湖的局地气候效应,揭示了太湖对局地降水、温度等气象要素的影响,并探讨了内在的物理机制。结果表明:太湖主要在局地尺度上引起夏季地面气温降低和降水的减少,影响强度从湖区向周边地区逐渐减弱;太湖引起的夏季降水减少主要来源于对对流性降水的减弱作用;太湖对湖区及邻近区域夏季地面气温和降水的影响表现出明显的日变化特征,白天影响程度明显强于夜间且在午后的影响最强;太湖在午后引起湖区及邻近地区低层大气显著降温和异常辐散,抑制了该区域的大气对流活动并引起对流降水的明显减少,进而造成夏季太湖及邻近地区降水的减少。     

Diurnal Variations of Thermal Roughness Height over a Grassland

The thermal roughness height associated with the surface radiation temperature has been previously found to vary between different surface types. This study finds that the thermal roughness height varies diurnally even over a homogeneous senescent grassland. The corresponding roughness length for momentum is relatively constant.Both the aerodynamic temperature and the surface radiation temperature are found to be closely related to the air temperature in the middle of the grass canopy. However, the aerodynamic temperature is strongly influenced by the horizontally integrated heat transfer, while the surface radiation temperature represents the integrated thermal emission through the grass depth within the field of view of the radiometer. The aerodynamic temperature is less sensitive to variations and measurement errors in sensible heat flux, wind speed, and air temperature than the thermal roughness height. We find that formulating the aerodynamic temperature in terms of the surface radiation temperature is better posed for use in the bulk formula than using the surface radiation temperature directly and adjusting the thermal roughness length.     

Effects of climate change on the thermal structure of lakes in the Asian Monsoon Area

This research investigates the effect of climate change on the thermal structure of lakes in response to watershed hydrology. We applied a hydrodynamic water quality model coupled to a hydrological model with a future climate scenario projected by a GCM A2 emission scenario to the Yongdam Reservoir, South Korea. In the climate change scenario, the temperature will increase by 2.1°C and 4.2°C and the precipitation will increase by 178.4?mm and 464.4?mm by the 2050 and 2090, respectively, based on 2010. The pattern changes of precipitation and temperature increase due to climate change modify the hydrology of the watershed. The hydrological model results indicate that they increase both surface runoff itself and temperature. The reservoir model simulation with the hydrological model results showed that increasing air temperature is related to higher surface water temperature. Surface water temperature is expected to increase by about 1.2°C and 2.2°C from the 2050 and 2090, respectively, based on the 2010 results. The simulation results of the effects of climate warming on the thermal structure of the Asian Monsoon Area Lake showed consistent results with those of previous studies in terms of greater temperature increases in the epilimnion than in the hypolimnion, increased thermal stratification, and decreasing thermocline depths during the summer and fall. From this study, it was concluded that the hydrodynamic water quality model coupled to the hydrological model could successfully simulate the variability of the epilimnetic temperature, changed depth and magnitude of the thermocline and the changed duration of summer stratification.     

Simulation of the sensitivity of Lake Victoria basin climate to lake surface temperatures

Summary The response of Lake Victoria basin climate to changes in the lake surface temperatures (LST) has been examined using NCAR-Regional climate model (RegCM2). In the control run uniform lake surface temperature of 24°C was prescribed and the model integrated for four months, starting at the beginning of September, 1988. In the anomaly experiments the LST was perturbed by ±1.5°C, and kept constant during the entire period of the integrations.Simulation results show significant relationship between basin-wide spatial distribution of rainfall and changes in LST. In general during the short rains at warmer/cooler LSTs, significant increase/decrease in the simulated rainfall occurs over the lake surface and surrounding areas. Rainfall exceeding the amount in the control run by more than 50%, particularly over the western, south/southwestern and central parts of the lake is simulated in the run in which the LST is 1.5°C warmer than the control. It is also evident from our results that different parts of the lake basin respond differently to LST changes which is in contrast to the common characterization of the lake basin as a single homogeneous climate regime in many previous studies.In general the results show that regions with largest response to LST anomalies during the short rains are collocated with the ITCZ. In October when the ITCZ is directly located over the lake, the largest response (maximum rainfall) is also located over the same region. As the season progresses and the ITCZ shifts out of the lake into northern Tanzania, the regions of rainfall maxima also shift with it. This appears to explain the unexpected reduction in over-lake rainfall in December in spite of the LST being warmer than control by 1.5°C. We believe this is a direct consequence of the enhanced convection to the south of the lake (over ITCZ) and the tendency of the system to conserve local moisture budget over the lake.     

Comparison of the climate simulated by the CCM3 coupled to two different land-surface models

We present results from a coupled atmosphere-biosphere model CCM3/IBIS (the Community Climate Model coupled to the Integrated BIosphere Simulator), which is designed to study the dynamic interactions between climate and vegetation and the global carbon cycle. We analyze the climate simulated by CCM3/IBIS with fixed vegetation conditions and we compare it to the climate simulated by the standard CCM3, which includes the LSM (land surface model) land-surface package. Important differences between the two models include simple parametrizations of lakes, wetlands and crops in CCM3/LSM not taken into account in CCM3/IBIS. CCM3/IBIS and CCM3/LSM share common biases (compared to observations) in the temperature field in boreal winter and in the precipitation field annually, making the atmospheric model the most probable cause of those biases. The models differ in the temperature field and surface energy balance in the Sahara annually and in the mid-to high latitudes from spring through fall. CCM3/IBIS simulates global annual air temperatures that are on average 1.7 °C higher than CCM3/LSM and 0.5 °C higher than the observed climatology. Differences in albedo and/or snow parametrization explain most of the Sahara and high-latitude temperature disagreement. Our sensitivity study with CCM3/LSM shows that the presence of lakes and wetlands in CCM3/LSM can account for about half of the difference in temperature in summer over the lake and wetland regions of the mid-latitudes. A second sensitivity study shows that higher surface roughness length in CCM3/IBIS can also explain part of the difference in summer surface temperature in the mid-latitudes. Surface roughness length affects the surface temperature through a feedback mechanism linking surface wind speed, planetary boundary layer height, low level cloudiness and radiation     

Asian monsoon simulations by Community Climate Models CAM4 and CCSM4

This study examines the ability of Community Atmosphere Model (CAM) and Community Climate System Model (CCSM) to simulate the Asian summer monsoon, focusing particularly on inter-model comparison and the role of air–sea interaction. Two different versions of CAM, namely CAM4 and CAM5, are used for uncoupled simulations whereas coupled simulations are performed with CCSM4 model. Ensemble uncoupled simulations are performed for a 30 year time period whereas the coupled model is integrated for 100 years. Emphasis is placed on the simulation of monsoon precipitation by analyzing the interannual variability of the atmosphere-only simulations and sea surface temperature bias in the coupled simulation. It is found that both CAM4 and CAM5 adequately simulated monsoon precipitation, and considerably reduced systematic errors that occurred in predecessors of CAM4, although both tend to overestimate monsoon precipitation when compared with observations. The onset and cessation of the precipitation annual cycle, along with the mean climatology, are reasonably well captured in their simulations. In terms of monsoon interannual variability and its teleconnection with SST over the Pacific and Indian Ocean, both CAM4 and CAM5 showed modest skill. CAM5, with revised model physics, has significantly improved the simulation of the monsoon mean climatology and showed better skill than CAM4. Using idealized experiments with CAM5, it is seen that the adoption of new boundary layer schemes in CAM5 contributes the most to reduce the monsoon overestimation bias in its simulation. In the CCSM4 coupled simulations, several aspects of the monsoon simulation are improved by the inclusion of air–sea interaction, including the cross-variability of simulated precipitation and SST. A significant improvement is seen in the spatial distribution of monsoon mean climatology where a too-heavy monsoon precipitation, which occurred in CAM4, is rectified. A detailed investigation of this significant precipitation reduction showed that the large systematic cold SST errors in the Northern Indian Ocean reduces monsoon precipitation and delays onset by weakening local evaporation. Sensitivity experiments with CAM4 further confirmed these results by simulating a weak monsoon in the presence of cold biases in the Northern Indian Ocean. It is found that although the air–sea coupling rectifies the major weaknesses of the monsoon simulation, the SST bias in coupled simulations induces significant differences in monsoon precipitation. The overall simulation characteristics demonstrate that although the new model versions CAM4, CAM5 and CCSM4, are significantly improved, they still have major weaknesses in simulating Asian monsoon precipitation.     

Observations and Modelling of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer Over Sea-Ice in a Svalbard Fjord

Sonic anemometer and profile mast measurements made in Wahlenbergfjorden, Svalbard Arctic archipelago, in May 2006 and April 2007 were employed to study the atmospheric boundary layer over sea-ice. The turbulent surface fluxes of momentum and sensible heat were calculated using eddy correlation and gradient methods. The results showed that the literature-based universal functions underestimated turbulent mixing in strongly stable conditions. The validity of the Monin-Obukhov similarity theory was questionable for cross-fjord flow directions and in the presence of mesoscale variability or topographic effects. The aerodynamic roughness length showed a dependence on the wind direction. The mean roughness length for along-fjord wind directions was (2.4 ± 2.6) × 10⁻⁴ m, whereas that for cross-fjord directions was (5.4 ± 2.8) × 10⁻³ m. The thermal stratification and turbulent fluxes were affected by the synoptic situation with large differences between the 2 years. Channelling effects and drainage flows occurred especially during a weak large-scale flow. The study periods were simulated applying the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model with 1-km horizontal resolution in the finest domain. The results for the 2-m air temperature and friction velocity were good, but the model failed to reproduce the spatial variability in wind direction between measurement sites 3 km apart. The model suggested that wind shear above the stable boundary layer provided a non-local source for the turbulence observed.     

Impacts of boreal hydroelectric reservoirs on seasonal climate and precipitation recycling as simulated by the CRCM5: a case study of the La Grande River watershed,Canada

Located in northern Quebec, Canada, eight hydroelectric reservoirs of a 9782-km² maximal area cover 6.4% of the La Grande watershed. This study investigates the changes brought by the impoundment of these reservoirs on seasonal climate and precipitation recycling. Two 30-year climate simulations, corresponding to pre- and post-impoundment conditions, were used. They were generated with the fifth-generation Canadian Regional Climate Model (CRCM5), fully coupled to a 1D lake model (FLake). Seasonal temperatures and annual energy budget were generally well reproduced by the model, except in spring when a cold bias, probably related to the overestimation of snow cover, was seen. The difference in 2-m temperature shows that reservoirs induce localized warming in winter (+0.7 ± 0.02 °C) and cooling in the summer (−0.3 ± 0.02 °C). The available energy at the surface increases throughout the year, mostly due to a decrease in surface albedo. Fall latent and sensible heat fluxes are enhanced due to additional energy storage and availability in summer and spring. The changes in precipitation and runoff are within the model internal variability. At the watershed scale, reservoirs induce an additional evaporation of only 5.9 mm year⁻¹ (2%). We use Brubaker’s precipitation recycling model to estimate how much of the precipitation is recycled within the watershed. In both simulations, the maximal precipitation recycling occurs in July (less than 6%), indicating weak land-atmosphere coupling. Reservoirs do not seem to affect this coupling, as precipitation recycling only decreased by 0.6% in July.

     

利用遥感和常规资料对比研究中国地面温度变化

采用一个在大区域上适用的由NOAA-AVHRR遥感数据反演地表温度的方法,反演中国20世纪80年代初到90年代初各月和全年晴空条件下的地表温度,通过比较同期的常规气象监测数据,对这一时期的中国地表温度变化进行了对比分析,得到全国各地区温度宏观变化规律和分布.结果表明:晴空条件下的中国地表温度与气温和地温的宏观变化规律是基本一致的,这一结果对于研究全球变化对中国的影响以及中国土地覆盖的变化趋势具有重要的指示意义.     

鄱阳湖地区零平面位移及动力粗糙度的计算

利用2013年7月1日至2014年6月30日鄱阳湖东岸70 m铁塔涡动相关观测资料,应用Martano方法和TVM（Temperature Variance Method）方法分别计算了该地地表零平面位移d和粗糙度z₀,通过代回Monin-Obukhov相似性理论的风廓线关系计算摩擦速度,以验证与实测摩擦速度的一致性。速度和温度标准差的归一化拟合线分别与Panosky等和Tillman给出的曲线趋势一致,表明该站观测数据总体满足近地层相似性。Martano方法计算结果随季节变化较大,春夏季的粗糙度是秋冬季的6.3倍;陆面方向零平面位移和粗糙度分别为来自湖面的2倍和10倍;Martano方法比TVM方法对季节和方向的敏感性更强。Martano方法计算得到零平面位移和粗糙度对摩擦速度造成了约9.9%的高估;而TVM方法对摩擦速度造成了约32.8%的高估;Martano方法计算的摩擦速度和观测值的一致性更好。     

Evaluation of the Climatic Change Impacts on the Inland Lake – A Case Study of Lake Qinghai, China

A catchment model coupled with a lake thermal model has been used to simulate the lake water balance of Lake Qinghai, a large inland lake on the northeast Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. The sensitivity analyses show that changes in precipitation will produce larger changes in runoff than temperature and cloudiness, whereas changes in lake level are equally sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation. With a doubling of CO₂ in the atmosphere, four GCMs experiments predict warmer and wetter conditions in the Qinghai region than at present. The total runoff in the lake basin and evaporation will, in most cases, increase as conditions become warmer and wetter. The lake level changes would remain uncertain because the effects of an increase in precipitation are countered by the rise of temperature.     

Statistical estimation of high-resolution surface air temperature from MODIS over the Yangtze River Delta,China

High-resolution surface air temperature data are critical to regional climate modeling in terms of energy balance, urban climate change, and so on. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface temperature (LST) to estimate air temperature at a high resolution over the Yangtze River Delta region, China. It is found that daytime LST is highly correlated with maximum air temperature, and the linear regression coefficients vary with the type of land surface. The air temperature at a resolution of 1 km is estimated from the MODIS LST with linear regression models. The estimated air temperature shows a clear spatial structure of urban heat islands. Spatial patterns of LST and air temperature differences are detected, indicating maximum differences over urban and forest regions during summer. Validations are performed with independent data samples, demonstrating that the mean absolute error of the estimated air temperature is approximately 2.5°C, and the uncertainty is about 3.1°C, if using all valid LST data. The error is reduced by 0.4°C (15%) if using best-quality LST with errors of less than 1 K. The estimated high-resolution air temperature data have great potential to be used in validating high-resolution climate models and other regional applications.     

南京地区城市下垫面特征对雷暴过程影响的数值模拟

本文选取2011年7月23日发生在南京的一次雷暴个例, 利用中尺度数值模式WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting model),耦合Noah/UCM,并采用NCEP FNL 1°×1°每日4次的全球分析场资料作为初始场及南京自动站观测数据等,对南京地区城市下垫面特征对雷暴过程的影响进行了数值模拟。结果表明:模拟的雷暴发生发展过程与该地区城市下垫面有着密切的联系。首先,雷暴发生前期,南京地区热岛效应明显。其次,城市上空的感热通量较高,结合城郊下垫面热力差异造成的城市热岛环流,加强了城区的辐合上升,为雷暴的形成提供了重要的抬升作用。城市下垫面扩张,使其上空边界层高度相应提升,垂直混合高度增加,有助于对流云的发展。此外,城市下垫面加强了大气低层的扰动位温,为雷暴提供了不稳定的层结条件。最后,城市地表较大的粗糙度使雷暴降水在城区低层的迎风面一侧明显增强。     

A Regional Air--Sea Coupled Model and Its Application over East Asia in the Summer of 2000

A regional air-sea coupled model,comprising the Regional Integrated Environment Model System (RIEMS)and the Princeton Ocean Model(POM)was developed to simulate summer climate features over East Asia in 2000.The sensitivity of the model's behavior to the coupling time interval(CTI),the causes of the sea surface temperature(SST)biases,and the role of air-sea interaction in the simulation of precipitation over China are investigated.Results show that the coupled model can basically produce the spatial pattern of SST,precipitation,and surface air temperature(SAT)with five different CTIs respectively.Also,using a CTI of 3,6 or 12 hours tended to produce more successful simulations than if using 1 and 24 hours.Further analysis indicates that both a higher and lower coupling frequency result in larger model biases in air-sea heat flux exchanges,which might be responsible for the sensitivity of the coupled model's behavior to the CTI. Sensitivity experiments indicate that SST biases between the coupled and uncoupled POM occurring over the China coastal waters were due to the mismatch of the surface heat fluxes produced by the RIEMS with those required by the POM.In the coupled run,the air-sea feedbacks reduced the biases in surface heat fluxes,compared with the uncoupled RIEMS,consequently resulted in changes in thermal contrast over land and sea and led to a precipitation increase over South China and a decrease over North China.These results agree well observations in the summer of 2000.     

Study on Effects of Building Morphology on Urban Boundary Layer Using an Urban Canopy Model

An urban canopy model is incorporated into the Nanjing University Regional Boundary Layer Model. Temperature simulated by the urban canopy model is in better agreement with the observation, especially in the night time, than that simulated by the traditional slab model. The coupled model is used to study the effects of building morphology on urban boundary layer and meteorological environment by changing urban area, building height, and building density.It is found that when the urban area is expanded, the urban boundary layer heat flux, thermal turbulence, and the turbulent momentum flux and kinetic energy all increase or enhance, causing the surface air temperature to rise up. The stability of urban atmospheric stratification is affected to different extent at different times of the day.When the building height goes up, the aerodynamic roughness height, zero plane displacement height of urban area, and ratio of building height to street width all increase. Therefore, the increase in building height results in the decrease of the surface heat flux, urban surface temperature, mean wind speed, and turbulent kinetic energy in daytime. While at night, as more heat storage is released by higher buildings, thermal turbulence is more active and surface heat flux increases, leading to a higher urban temperature.As the building density increases, the aerodynamic roughness height of urban area decreases, and the effect of urban canopy on radiation strengthens. The increase of building density results in the decrease in urban surface heat flux, momentum flux, and air temperature, the increase in mean wind speed, and the weakening of turbulence in the daytime. While at night, the urban temperature increases due to the release of more heat storage.     

Development and validation of a regional coupled atmosphere lake model for the Caspian Sea Basin

We present a validation analysis of a regional climate model coupled to a distributed one dimensional (1D) lake model for the Caspian Sea Basin. Two model grid spacings are tested, 50 and 20 km, the simulation period is 1989–2008 and the lateral boundary conditions are from the ERA-Interim reanalysis of observations. The model is validated against atmospheric as well as lake variables. The model performance in reproducing precipitation and temperature mean seasonal climatology, seasonal cycles and interannual variability is generally good, with the model results being mostly within the observational uncertainty range. The model appears to overestimate cloudiness and underestimate surface radiation, although a large observational uncertainty is found in these variables. The 1D distributed lake model (run at each grid point of the lake area) reproduces the observed lake-average sea surface temperature (SST), although differences compared to observations are found in the spatial structure of the SST, most likely as a result of the absence of 3 dimensional lake water circulations. The evolution of lake ice cover and near surface wind over the lake area is also reproduced by the model reasonably well. Improvements resulting from the increase of resolution from 50 to 20 km are most significant in the lake model. Overall the performance of the coupled regional climate—1D lake model system appears to be of sufficient quality for application to climate change scenario simulations over the Caspian Sea Basin.     

Diurnal phase of late-night against late-afternoon of stratiform and convective precipitation in summer southern contiguous China

Using the tropical rainfall measuring mission (TRMM) Precipitation Radar (PR) observations combined with the surface rain gauge data during 1998–2006, the robust diurnal features of summer stratiform and convective precipitation over the southern contiguous China are revealed by exploring the diurnal variations of rain rate and precipitation profile. The precipitation over the southern contiguous China exhibits two distinguishing diurnal phases: late-night (2200–0600 LST) and late-afternoon (1400–2200 LST), dependent on the location, precipitation type and duration time. Generally, the maximum rain rate and the highest profile of stratiform precipitation occur in the late-afternoon (late-night) over the southeastern (southwestern) China, while most of the stratiform short-duration rain rate tends to present late-afternoon peaks over the southern China. For convective precipitation, the maximum rain rate and the highest profile occur in the late-afternoon over most of the southern contiguous China, while the convective long-duration rain rate exhibits late-night peaks over the southwestern China. Without regional dependence, the convective precipitation exhibits much larger amplitude of diurnal variations in both near surface rain rate and vertical extension compared with stratiform precipitation and the convective rain top rises most rapidly between noon and afternoon. However, there are two distinctive sub-regions. The diurnal phases of precipitation there are very weakly dependent on precipitation type and duration time. Over the eastern periphery of the Tibetan Plateau, the maximum rain rate and the highest profile of either convective or stratiform precipitation occur in the late-night. Over the southeastern coastal regions, both the near surface rain rate and rain top of convective and stratiform precipitation peak in the late-afternoon.