Polar marine biology science in Portugal and Spain: Recent advances and future perspectives

Polar marine ecosystems have global ecological and economic importance because of their unique biodiversity and their major role in climate processes and commercial fisheries, among others. Portugal and Spain have been highly active in a wide range of disciplines in marine biology of the Antarctic and the Arctic. The main aim of this paper is to provide a synopsis of some of the results and initiatives undertaken by Portuguese and Spanish polar teams within the field of marine sciences, particularly on benthic and pelagic biodiversity (species diversity and abundance, including microbial, molecular, physiological and chemical mechanisms in polar organisms), conservation and ecology of top predators (particularly penguins, albatrosses and seals), and pollutants and evolution of marine organisms associated with major issues such as climate change, ocean acidification and UV radiation effects. Both countries have focused their polar research more in the Antarctic than in the Arctic. Portugal and Spain should encourage research groups to continue increasing their collaborations with other countries and develop multi-disciplinary research projects, as well as to maintain highly active memberships within major organizations, such as the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR), the International Arctic Science Council (IASC) and the Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS), and in international research projects.     

Lessons in regional cooperation from the arctic

The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum for the Arctic states, which have an outreach beyond the Arctic circle. It is a unique international regime for cooperation among governments and indigenous peoples. The Arctic Council has a very light administration and no obligatory funding. The Host Country of the Council provides a Secretariat and serves as a hub in a network in active operation. Projects are administered by a lead partner, often a Member State or a Indigenous people's organisation. Most of the work is done in Working Groups of Experts. In 1998, The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme delivered a science-based Assessment Report on Arctic Pollution Issues. This report has influenced strongly on the global negotiations on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals. The Stockholm Convention on POPs 2001 is a significant step forward for the protection of the Arctic environment and for people living in the Arctic, who are dependent on harvesting as a central source of livelihood. The Arctic Council has adopted a Regional Plan of Action, which follows the UNEP methodology on the Protection of the Marine Environment from land-based activities. In June 2001, a report on the status and conservation of Flora and Fauna was delivered to the Arctic Council by the experts, who were requested to prepare recommendations on biodiversity conservation on the basis of the status report. The most important project for the time being is the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Close to 200 climate scientific experts from 11 countries are participating in the project, which will deliver its final report in 2004. Science-based decision making is an Arctic Council brand. In addition, the Council takes into account traditional knowledge provided by indigenous peoples. The overall goal is to enhance sustainable development in the Arctic. The Council contributes to a better knowledge base for decision-making. Political recommendations are agreed upon unanimously. Much of the implementation is done by the member states themselves and appropriate international organisations. The ambition is to integrate sustainable development principles into all activities and projects under the auspices of the Arctic Council.     

Adoption of the arctic search and rescue agreement: A shift of the arctic regime toward a hard law basis?

This paper examines the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement—the first legally-binding instrument negotiated and adopted under the auspices of the Arctic Council—and analyzes its implications for the current Arctic regime. Led by the Arctic Council, the Arctic regime was established in a soft law format. However, the soft law nature and restricted mandates of the Arctic Council have limited its capacity to respond to new issues emerging from climate change, particularly those related to the exploitation of oil and gas reserves, commercial shipping through the region, effects on wildlife, and impacts on indigenous peoples' homelands and culture. The adoption of the Agreement represents a new approach for the Arctic States to respond to these new challenges. At the same time, it does not imply that a legally-binding instrument is necessarily preferable for every issue, and importantly, the new Arctic Agreement does not establish new institutional relationships, suggesting satisfaction among the Arctic States with the existing arrangements. Thus, although the Arctic regime is undoubtedly changing, this change should not be treated today as a shift from soft to hard law. What is more certain is that the Arctic Council will continue to function as a cooperative forum where the Arctic States can address these challenges, and its importance will only increase in coming years.     

Declining Arctic Ocean oil and gas developments: Opportunities to improve governance and environmental pollution control

There has been global interest in the exploitation of rich hydrocarbon resources in the Arctic for decades. However, recent low oil prices, a low carbon economy climate agenda, and technical challenges of Arctic oil extraction have curbed interest in these Arctic resources. Despite a recent reluctance to explore and develop an offshore Arctic drilling industry, a resurgence in oil and gas prices could spark renewed interests that could pose unacceptable risks of pollution from oil spills. These risks are further compounded by complex governance and sovereignty issues between circumpolar nations. This paper (i) compares cycles of Arctic hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation activity with global energy prices; (ii) outlines current pollution abatement techniques under pan-Arctic national regulations to identify potential gaps; (iii) describes current international frameworks for Arctic governance to highlight how problems could arise if offshore oil drilling returns to the Arctic and associated spills migrate to international waters; and (iv) provides policy recommendations to aid both national and international policy-makers regarding pollution abatement methods for future Arctic drilling.     

The ACIA,climate change and fisheries

The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) is a project of the intergovernmental Arctic Council, intended to synthesize knowledge of the effects of climate change on the Arctic. This paper is based on the primary output of the ACIA project, a 1042 page book entitled Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Our concern is with the effects of Arctic climate change on fisheries. To set the stage, however, we first discuss those chapters that logically precede the fisheries discussion, the chapters concerned with past and present climate change, climate modeling and marine systems. The conclusion notes that moderate climate warming will probably benefit most Arctic fisheries. The conclusion also considers the role of anthropogenic causation in climate change and its policy implications.     

The national geophysical data center bathymetric program

The National Geophysical Data Center's (NGDC's) mission is data management in the broadest sense, playing a role in the nation's research into the environment and providing data to a wide group of users. NGDC also operates components of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) World Data Center A. The Marine Geology and Geophysics Division of NGDC handles bathymetric data acquisition, manipulation, archival, and dissemination and operates the International Hydrographic Organization Data Center for Digital Bathymetry. Four major data bases have been developed to manage the large volume of data received: the Global Marine Geophysical Data Base (geophysical data acquired in a time series); the NOAA National Ocean Service Hydrographic Data Base; the International Hydrographic Data Base (contains bathymetric data, other than NOS surveys, with no time‐tagging); and the Multibeam Bathymetric Data Base. In addition, gridded data sets such as ETOPO5 are available from NGDC. Bathymetric data are acquired by NGDC through data exchange, funded and contract programs, processing of long‐term data holdings, data digitization from hardcopy sources, and national and international linkages. NGDC personnel participate nationally and internationally on numerous committees associated with studies of the seafloor including charting and bathymetric needs.     

Marine biodiversity in the Caribbean UK overseas territories: Perceived threats and constraints to environmental management

Islands are often considered to be a priority for conservation, because of their relatively high levels of biodiversity and their vulnerability to a range of natural and anthropogenic threats. However, the capacity of islands to conserve and manage biodiversity may depend upon their governance structures. Many island states are affiliated to other countries through an ‘overseas territory’ status, which may provide them with access to resources and support mechanisms, but which may also influence the capacity for local-scale management of environmental issues. The United Kingdom has 12 island Overseas Territories (UKOTs), most of which support biodiversity of high conservation concern. This study investigates perceptions of current and future threats to marine ecosystems and constraints to environmental protection on the six Caribbean UKOTs, through semi-structured interviews with officials from UK and UKOT government departments and non-governmental organisations. Coastal development, pollution and over-fishing were perceived as threats of most concern for the next decade, but climate change was perceived as by far the greatest future threat to the islands' marine ecosystems. However, a series of common institutional limitations that currently constrain mitigation and conservation efforts were also identified, including insufficient personnel and financial support, a lack of long-term, sustainable projects for persistent environmental problems and inadequate environmental legislation. These findings highlight the need for regional cooperation and capacity-building throughout the Caribbean and a more concerted approach to an UKOT environmental management by the UK and UKOTs' governments.     

1998~2017年国际北极地区海洋科学研究文献计量与发展态势

北极拥有其独特的地理位置和战略价值,同时也是全球变暖最关键的敏感区,世界各国针对北极地区制定了一系列政策计划,并开展了多年的北极海洋科学研究。基于Web of Science数据库收录的1998~2017年SCIE文章,采用文献计量与引文分析的方法与工具,分析了13784篇北极海洋科学研究的整体态势与热点前沿,结果表明：①全球北极海洋科学研究呈现出加快增长趋势,近5年的发文已经翻了一番,年均发文在689篇以上; ②环北极八国是该领域研究的主要力量,美国遥遥领先其他国家,挪威、丹麦研究基底深厚但近年发展稍缓,英国、德国是主要的非北极研究国,瑞典、法国的论文质量均衡,中国、波兰、格陵兰和荷兰则是该领域的后起之秀; ③俄罗斯科学院在本领域发文最多但文章质量良莠不齐,德国极地与海洋研究所、丹麦&格陵兰地质调查机构与挪威海洋研究所的第一作者与通讯作者研究占比高,哥本哈根大学、德国极地与海洋研究所、华盛顿大学在该领域科研影响力较大; ④全球海洋科学研究主要涉及地质学、海洋学、环境生态学、自然地理学、地球化学与地球物理学以及气象学与大气科学等领域,研究热点包括北极气候变化与极端天气、冰川消融与海平面上升、北极生态系统特征结构、北极海洋酸化与污染防治等方面。随着“一带一路”、“冰上丝绸之路”和《中国的北极政策》白皮书的发布,建议我国针对本国情况制定综合性北极科研计划,并注重科研机构间跨部门、跨领域的研究合作,加强与环北极国家和“一带一路”国家的合作,加大科研投入并开展国际规模的科学考察活动。     

Success in heading north?: South Korea's master plan for Arctic policy

South Korea's seven governmental ministries and agency jointly announced a “Master Plan for Arctic Policy” on December 10, 2013. This represents the state's first comprehensive Arctic policy document. This paper aims to analyze the Korean government's Master Plan from both the legal and policy perspectives, as well as to make constructive comments for its improvement. Environmental changes, the need for scientific research, growing economic optimism about the Arctic region, and political leadership have led South Korea to head north. These four factors form the basis for the Master Plan. This document outlines Korea's vision (to be a reliable and responsible partner in this polar region), three policy goals, four strategies, and thirty-one projects connected to the Arctic region. The formation of the Master Plan has been an opportunity for South Korea to organize and compile all the various Arctic activities independently conducted by governmental ministries and agency. In order to improve South Korea's Arctic policy since the Master Plan, the author recommends that the nation prioritize its projects according to its needs and the feasibility of each project. Prudence is required in the drafting and implementation of Arctic policy to respect Arctic states' sovereignties and sovereign rights over the Arctic areas. Finally, strengthening cooperation with the Arctic states and at Arctic forums is indispensable. In particular, bilateral cooperation is essential for South Korea to perform economic activities such as the exploration for oil and gas.     

Management and conservation at the International Whaling Commission: A dichotomy sandwiched within a shifting baseline

The International Whaling Commission's (IWC) Scientific Committee provides important advice to the IWC on a large variety of cetacean species, sub-species and populations and the issues affecting them. Cetaceans are facing increasing, non-whaling-related threats, and the Scientific Committee (SC), in accordance with the Commission's requests, has strengthened its conservation-oriented research work. A selection of the reports of the Scientific Committee from between 1986 and 2012 was assessed for its: (i) fundamental research; (ii) management; (iii) conservation; and (iv) administrative content, and to identify potential trends over time. Recommendations and their urgency were also examined, as implied from the language used by the SC in its reports. The analysis showed that the work of the Scientific Committee has increasingly been oriented towards conservation issues over the period reviewed, but at the same time this conservation work has received little funding. Increased support for conservation-related research projects is warranted to promote the long-term survival of cetaceans. Based on this review of the content and focus of the Committee reports, the analysis suggested that its issued advice be made clearer, whenever possible, and governments are urged to give due consideration to this science-based advice particularly when urgent conservation actions are needed. In addition, more consistent funding of the IWC's conservation-related research should be pursued to improve international conservation outputs regarding cetacean populations.     

基于ScienceDirect数据库的国外北极问题研究综述（2007—2021年）

随着北极海冰融化的加剧,北极问题研究的重要性逐渐凸显。文章以ScienceDirect数据库为主要搜索范围,系统梳理了2007—2021年国外北极问题研究文献,从北极航线、北极经济、北极政治和北极环境4个方面对国外北极问题研究现状进行了分析。认为未来的国外北极问题研究中,北极航线相关问题研究将聚焦于北极航线运营模式的研究;北极经济问题研究将注重区域经济和北极产业发展;北极政治研究依然会着力探讨如何在北极治理中的合作问题,虽然目前的北极政治研究中定性分析和描述性分析较多,但未来将增加定量分析和理论创新的研究;北极环境问题研究将注重北极经济开发和环境保护的平衡,进一步关注北极的可持续发展问题。     

Approaches to addressing the problems of pollution of the marine environment: an overview

A review is presented of major international actions taken to address the pollution of the marine environment, from various sources. The actions are put into the context of the third United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the outcomes of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development 1992, and are related to major issues facing society with respect to the marine environment. These concern governance, institutions, implementation of international agreements, capacity building, as well as impacts on the ocean and needs for research and observations. The need for political will to act is also emphasized.     

国际海洋科技领域研究热点及未来布局

近年来,全球海洋研究呈现出若干新的特点.本文基于对近年来全球重要海洋研究进展信息,分析了全球环境变化背景下几个重要研究热点方向的最新进展,包括全球海洋物理环境变化研究、海洋塑料污染研究、海洋酸化研究、南北极和印度洋研究以及海洋技术开发等.基于对美国、英国、日本和俄罗斯等重要海洋国家最新发布的海洋科技创新政策和计划,分析...     

Recent advances in marine technology in Canada

Much of the recent Canadian activity in marine technology has focused on development of capabilities in Arctic waters, and on the update and replacement of naval vessels. This paper describes some of the significant projects and programs now under way, and suggests future research and development requirements.     

末次冰消期以来北极东北陆架对快速气候变化的响应

北极快速气候变化越来越深刻影响着北极地区以及全球的环境变化,已成为当今地球科学研究的重大前沿科学问题。北极东北陆架作为世界上最宽广平坦的陆架,既是北冰洋季节性海冰形成的主要源区,又是现代海冰变化最强烈的区域,对气候变化敏感,响应强烈,属于环境脆弱地区。通过全面分析近年来国际上在末次冰消期以来快速气候变化背景下北极东北陆架环境响应的研究进展和存在的主要问题,阐述了沉积物“源—汇”过程、海冰演化历史、碳循环以及快速气候变化事件等方面取得的研究成果,发现东北陆架地区沉积物和有机碳来源复杂,时空变化强烈,气候和环境变化过程与海冰演化息息相关。未来的研究应加强现代过程的长期连续观测,重视地质记录中气候环境演变信号的精确解译,深化数值模拟技术和大数据的挖掘与使用,开展不同时间尺度北极快速气候变化及其驱动机制研究,并加强北极快速气候变化对中纬度地区特别是对东亚以及我国环境变化影响的研究。     

Ocean technology in China

Much of the recent Canadian activity in marine technology has focused on development of capabilities in Arctic waters, and on the update and replacement of naval vessels. This paper describes some of the significant projects and programs now under way, and suggests future research and development requirements.     

UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme: approach,experience and future plans

The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, UN Conference, 1972) outlined a ‘masterplan’ linking environmental assessment, environmental management and supporting measures as basic and inseparable elements of environmental actions plans. It also indicated the advantages of a regional approach in contributing to the solution of global problems. The Regional Seas Programme of UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) was subsequently initiated in 1974 (UN General Assembly, 1972). Development of UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme demonstrated that the basic concepts formulated at Stockholm can effectively foster regional cooperation among interested States, and may benefit from the support of the United Nations system as a whole.The present Regional Seas Programme includes fourteen regions, comprising over 140 coastal States. It was conceived as an action-oriented programme encompassing a comprehensive, trans-sectoral approach to marine and coastal areas and to environmental problems, considering not only the consequences, but also the causes of environmental degradation. Each Regional Seas Programme is based on the needs of the region concerned. The Regional Seas Programmes promote the parallel development of regional legal agreements, and of action-oriented programme activities, as embodied in the action plans. The overall strategy to be followed, as defined by UNEP’s Governing Council (UNEP, 1974) is:

• 1. Promotion of international and regional conventions, guidelines and actions for the control of marine pollution and the protection and management of aquatic resources.
• 2. Assessment of the state of marine pollution, pollution sources and trends, and of the impact of pollution on human health, marine ecosystems and amenities.
• 3. Coordination of efforts with regard to environmental aspects of the protection, development and management of marine and coastal resources.
• 4. Support for education and training efforts to facilitate the full participation of developing countries in the protection, development and management of marine and coastal resources.

Because the goal of each Regional Seas Programme is to benefit the States of that region, governments are involved from the very beginning in the formulation of the action plan. After acceptance, the implementation of the programme is carried out, under the overall authority of the governments concerned, by national institutions nominated by their governments. Although the Regional Seas Programme is implemented primarily by government-nominated institutions, specialized United Nations bodies, as well as the relevant international and regional organizations, contribute to its formulation, and also provide assistance to these national institutions. UNEP acts as an overall coordinator for the development and implementation of regional action plans. In some cases, this role is limited to the initial phase of the activities.     

The emerging politics of the Arctic Ocean. Future management of the living marine resources

This article seeks to identify and analyze the most important political issues at stake with respect to the ongoing process regarding the future management of living resources in the high seas of the Arctic Ocean. Through assessing the potential for future commercial utilization of marine resources in the Arctic Ocean and analyzing the differences between the interests of engaged stakeholders in the process, the article seeks to answer whose interests and norms seem to most strongly influence the unfolding political processes and preliminary outcomes. The article concludes by identifying how the five Arctic coastal states have retained the upper hand in this process through skilled political entrepreneurship, the devotion of necessary resources and the political commitment of their respective governments.     

美国北极地区能源开发政策演变

随着全球气候变暖,各国对北极能源的开发愈发重视。美国北极地区的能源储量巨大,但鉴于美国的北极战略核心是国家安全、环境保护和国际合作,其能源开发相对滞后。2013年奥巴马政府出台了《北极地区国家战略》,开始对北极能源开发予以特别关注。特朗普政府执政期间,加强了对北极近海油气能源开发的支持力度。2021年拜登总统上任后,美国的北极能源政策以气候变化为核心,意在推动北极地区的绿色发展。美国的北极能源开发始终面临着法律、资金、技术、环保等各种问题的制约,这也决定了美国北极地区能源开发的复杂性和长期性。我国宜通过制定北极能源合作开发战略,重视北极等极寒地区绿色技术的应用和研发,推动与美国在北极地区气候变化和能源转型的合作,深化国际协作与交流,积极参与北极治理等举措,促进我国对北极能源资源的开发利用。     

The missing middle: Central Arctic Ocean gaps in fishery research and science coordination

The warming global climate is reducing sea-ice coverage in the central Arctic, transforming a mostly inaccessible marine region into a 'new' and relatively poorly studied ocean. History shows that exploitation of newly accessible natural resources tends to precede effective research and management measures. But in response to increasing access to the central Arctic, a precautionary approach has been taking hold, with broad political and scientific support culminating in the Oslo Declaration of 2015, which aims to prevent unregulated high seas fishing in the central Arctic. Negotiations toward a full binding agreement are continuing. Formal efforts toward assessing knowledge of the Arctic marine ecosystems and coordinating research are underway, and practitioner-based research coordination and collaboration in the region is also ongoing. Yet broad gaps in our current marine research and coordination exist, and this paper draws attention to the spatial middle, middle trophics, and the middle scale — an Arctic 'missing middle'. Scientific activity in the central Arctic Ocean region is burgeoning in recent years, and a large number of initiatives, projects, and arrangements are meeting some of the need for coordination. But full pan-Arctic scientific coordination does not yet exist. In support of ecosystem-based and precautionary management of the central Arctic Ocean, this paper considers a fully Arctic-focused organization that can both orchestrate and prioritize marine research in the Arctic in view of policy imperatives, and bring emerging scientific understanding of the region directly into the discussion and formation of new policy.