Matching gasification technologies to coal properties

The gasification of coal to produce hydrogen for use either in power generation or/and for synthesis applications and transport is attracting considerable interest worldwide. Three types of generic gasifiers (entrained flow, fluidised bed and fixed bed gasifiers) presently in use in commercial gasification plants or under development worldwide are described. Their suitability for processing all types of coals is discussed. This includes an assessment of the impact of some of the major properties of coal on the design, performance and maintenance of gasification processes.     

The use of sulfur to extract hydrogen from coal

The world's recoverable coal reserves contain about 3 × 10¹⁰ tons of hydrogen. The reaction of sulfur vapor with medium-volatile bituminous coal produces hydrogen sulfide in yields up to 97% (based on sulfur), and utilizes 70–75% of the hydrogen from the coal. The conversion of hydrogen sulfide to hydrogen can be effected through commercially proven processes; several laboratory-scale processes could also be scaled up for future use. The solid by-product of the coal–sulfur reaction meets or exceeds specifications for fixed carbon, ash, and friability of conventional metallurgical coke, though produced at lower temperatures than typical by-product coke ovens. A conceptual process is presented in which sulfur is converted to hydrogen sulfide by reaction with coal, the hydrogen sulfide in turn is converted to the desired hydrogen and to sulfur, and the sulfur is recycled through the reactor. The by-product is a good quality coke, but may also have other applications as a carbon material.     

Hydrogen from coal: Production and utilisation technologies

Although coal may be viewed as a dirty fuel due to its high greenhouse emissions when combusted, a strong case can be made for coal to be a major world source of clean H₂ energy. Apart from the fact that resources of coal will outlast oil and natural gas by centuries, there is a shift towards developing environmentally benign coal technologies, which can lead to high energy conversion efficiencies and low air pollution emissions as compared to conventional coal fired power generation plant. There are currently several world research and industrial development projects in the areas of Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles (IGCC) and Integrated Gasification Fuel Cell (IGFC) systems. In such systems, there is a need to integrate complex unit operations including gasifiers, gas separation and cleaning units, water gas shift reactors, turbines, heat exchangers, steam generators and fuel cells. IGFC systems tested in the USA, Europe and Japan employing gasifiers (Texaco, Lurgi and Eagle) and fuel cells have resulted in energy conversions at efficiency of 47.5% (HHV) which is much higher than the 30–35% efficiency of conventional coal fired power generation. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) are the front runners in energy production from coal gases. These fuel cells can operate at high temperatures and are robust to gas poisoning impurities. IGCC and IGFC technologies are expensive and currently economically uncompetitive as compared to established and mature power generation technology. However, further efficiency and technology improvements coupled with world pressures on limitation of greenhouse gases and other gaseous pollutants could make IGCC/IGFC technically and economically viable for hydrogen production and utilisation in clean and environmentally benign energy systems.     

From in-situ coal to fly ash: a study of coal mines and power plants from Indiana

This paper presents data on the properties of coal and fly ash from two coal mines and two power plants that burn single-source coal from two mines in Indiana. One mine is in the low-sulfur (<1%) Danville Coal Member of the Dugger Formation (Pennsylvanian) and the other mines the high-sulfur (>5%) Springfield Coal Member of the Petersburg Formation (Pennsylvanian). Both seams have comparable ash contents (11%). Coals sampled at the mines (both raw and washed fractions) were analyzed for proximate/ultimate/sulfur forms/heating value, major oxides, trace elements and petrographic composition. The properties of fly ash from these coals reflect the properties of the feed coal, as well as local combustion and post-combustion conditions. Sulfur and spinel content, and As, Pb and Zn concentrations of the fly ash are the parameters that most closely reflect the properties of the source coal.     

Ambient nanoparticles/nanominerals and hazardous elements from coal combustion activity:Implications on energy challenges and health hazards

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world. Because of the growth of coal mining, coal-fired power plants and coal-burning industries, the increase of the emission of particulates(coarse, fine or ultrafine)is of great concern. There is a relationship between increasing human morbidity and mortality and progressive environmental air pollution caused by these types of particles. Thus, the knowledge of the physico-chemical composition and ambient concentrations of coal-derived nanoparticles will improve pollution control strategy. Given the current importance of this area of research, the advanced characterization of this coal combustion-derived nanoparticles/nanominerals as well as hazardous elements is likely to be one of the hottest research fields in coming days. In this review, we try to compile the existing knowledge on coal-derived nanoparticles/nanominerals and discuss the advanced level of characterization techniques for future research. This review also provides some of aspects of health risks associated with exposure to ambient nanoparticles. In addition, the presence of some of the hazardous elements in coal and coal combustion activities is also reviewed.     

Quality of selected coal seams from Indiana: implications for carbonization

The chemical properties of two high-volatile bituminous coals, the Danville Coal Member of the Dugger Formation and the Lower Block Coal Member of the Brazil Formation from southern Indiana, were compared to understand the differences in their coking behavior. It was determined that of the two, the Lower Block has better characteristics for coking. Observed factors that contribute to the differences in the coking behavior of the coals include carbon content, organic sulfur content, and oxygen/carbon (O/C) ratios. The Lower Block coal has greater carbon content than the Danville coal, leading to a lower O/C ratio, which is more favorable for coking. Organic sulfur content is higher in the Lower Block coal, and a strong correlation was found between organic sulfur and plasticity. The majority of the data for both seams plot in the Type III zone on a van Krevelen diagram, and several samples from the Lower Block coal plot into the Type II zone, suggesting a perhydrous character for those samples. This divergence in properties between the Lower Block and Danville coals may account for the superior coking behavior of the Lower Block coal.     

Impact of transition from local swelling to macro swelling on the evolution of coal permeability

Laboratory observations have shown that coal permeability under the influence of gas adsorption can change instantaneously from reduction to enhancement. It is commonly believed that this instantaneous switching of permeability is due to the fact that the matrix swelling ultimately ceases at higher pressures and the influence of effective stresses take over. In this study, our previously-developed poroelastic model is used to uncover the true reason why coal permeability switches from reduction to enhancement. This goal is achieved through explicit simulations of the dynamic interactions between coal matrix swelling/shrinking and fracture aperture alteration, and translations of these interactions to perrmeability evolution under unconstrained swellings. Our results of this study have revealed the transition of coal matrix swelling from local swelling to macro-swelling as a novel mechanism for this switching. Our specific findings include: (1) at the initial stage of CO₂ injection, matrix swelling is localized within the vicinity of the fracture compartment. As the injection continues, the swelling zone is extending further into the matrix and becomes macro-swelling. Matrix properties control the swelling transition from local swelling to macro swelling; (2) matrix swelling processes control the evolution of coal permeability. When the swelling is localized, coal permeability is controlled by the internal fracture boundary condition and behaves volumetrically; when the swelling becomes macro-swelling, coal permeability is controlled by the external boundary condition and behaves non-volumetrically; and (3) matrix properties control the switch from local swelling to macro swelling and the associated switch in permeability behavior from reduction to recovery. Based on these findings, a permeability switching model has been proposed to represent the evolution of coal permeability under variable stress conditions. This model is verified against our experimental data. It is found that the model predictions are consistent with typical laboratory and in-situ observations available in lietratures.     

Progression in sulfur isotopic compositions from coal to fly ash: Examples from single-source combustion in Indiana

Sulfur occurs in multiple mineral forms in coals, and its fate in coal combustion is still not well understood. The sulfur isotopic composition of coal from two coal mines in Indiana and fly ash from two power plants that use these coals were studied using geological and geochemical methods. The two coal beds are Middle Pennsylvanian in age; one seam is the low-sulfur (< 1%) Danville Coal Member of the Dugger Formation and the other is the high-sulfur (> 5%) Springfield Coal Member of the Petersburg Formation. Both seams have ash contents of approximately 11%. Fly-ash samples were collected at various points in the ash-collection system in the two plants. The results show notable difference in δ³⁴S for sulfur species within and between the low-sulfur and high-sulfur coal. The δ³⁴S values for all sulfur species are exclusively positive in the low-sulfur Danville coal, whereas the δ³⁴S values for sulfate, pyritic, and organic sulfur are both positive and negative in the high-sulfur Springfield coal. Each coal exhibits a distinct pattern of stratigraphic variation in sulfur isotopic composition. Overall, the δ³⁴S for sulfur species values increase up the section in the low-sulfur Danville coal, whereas they show a decrease up the vertical section in the high-sulfur Springfield coal. Based on the evolution of δ³⁴S for sulfur species, it is suggested that there was influence of seawater on peat swamp, with two marine incursions occurring during peat accumulation of the high-sulfur Springfield coal. Therefore, bacterial sulfate reduction played a key role in converting sulfate into hydrogen sulfide, sulfide minerals, and elemental sulfur. The differences in δ³⁴S between sulfate sulfur and pyritic sulfur is very small between individual benches of both coals, implying that some oxidation occurred during deposition or postdeposition.The δ³⁴S values for fly ash from the high-sulfur Springfield coal (averaging 9.7‰) are greatly enriched in ³⁴S relative to those in the parent coal (averaging 2.2‰). This indicates a fractionation of sulfur isotopes during high-sulfur coal combustion. By contrast, the δ³⁴S values for fly-ash samples from the low-sulfur Danville coal average 10.2‰, only slightly enriched in ³⁴S relative to those from the parent coal (average 7.5‰). The δ³⁴S values for bulk S determined directly from the fly-ash samples show close correspondence with the δ³⁴S values for SO₄^− 2 leached from the fly ash in the low-sulfur coal, suggesting that the transition from pyrite to sulfate occurred via high-temperature oxidation during coal combustion.     

An analysis of coal bump liability in a bump prone mine

Summary This paper presents an analysis of causes of bump in a deep coal mine. The analysis consists of in-mine measurement determination, analysis of physical and mechanical properties of mine materials and simulation of mine layout and mining sequence. Major factors contributing to the causes of bump have been reviewed and those that are related to this case have been identified and simulated analytically using a three-dimensional finite element method.     

Mechanisms of coal metamorphism: case studies from Paleozoic coalfields

Controls on coal metamorphism can be complex. In this paper, we examine four Paleozoic coalfields: the western Kentucky portion of the Illinois Basin, the Pennsylvania anthracite fields, the South Wales Coalfield, and the Bowen Basin. An increase in temperature with depth of burial is certainly a factor in coal metamorphism. In many coalfields, however, including the coalfields reviewed here, it has become apparent that such a simple mechanism does not explain the coal rank patterns observed. The flow of hydrothermal fluids through the coals has been proposed as a cause of coal metamorphism. Evidence includes inverted rank gradients, elevated CFL as an indicator of brine fluids, isotopic evidence for hydrothermal fluids, and vein and cleat mineral assemblages. In any case, multiple hypotheses must often be evaluated in the examination of any coalfield since the simple paradigm of coal rank increases with a simple increase in temperature with increasing depth does not fit the evidence observed in many cases.     

Using digital mapping techniques to evaluate beneficiation potential in a coal ash pond

Coal-fired power plants produce energy and many by-products (unburned carbon, fly ash, and bottom ash) that are normally stored in permitted ponds and landfills. When the storage facility fills to capacity, it is necessary to haul material off-site for disposal, construct a new storage facility, or find a use for some of the material. Because certain criteria must be met to successfully beneficiate the ash, mapping the ash reserve provides data that shows where the most promising recovery sites will be.The University of Kentucky Center for Applied Energy Research (CAER) in conjunction with Western Kentucky Energy (WKE) and the US Department of Energy are constructing an ash beneficiation plant to recover high quality fuel and lightweight aggregate from the ash ponds at WKE's Coleman Station in Hawesville, KY. To determine the locations of the most productive areas, an extensive sampling and mapping project is underway. An amphibious ATV-mounted hydraulic drill has been employed to take core samples throughout the pond. These samples are then evaluated for particle size distribution, carbon content, chemical and leaching properties. With this information as well as each drill-hole's GPS coordinates and aerial photographs of the plant site, digital maps have been produced showing trends of deposition of material in the pond. Using a Geographical Information System to compile the data, the feasibility of removing ash for beneficial re-use can assessed.     

Hydrogen isotopic compositions of individual alkanes as a new approach to petroleum correlation: case studies from the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin

Isotopic compositions of carbon-bound hydrogen in individual n-alkanes and acyclic isoprenoid alkanes, from a number of crude oil samples, were measured using gas chromatography-thermal conversion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The precision of this technique is better than 3‰ for most alkanes, compared to the large range of δD variation among the samples (up to 160‰). The oils were selected from major genetic oil families in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, with source rocks ranging in age from Ordovician (and possibly Cambrian) to Cretaceous. The hydrogen isotopic composition of alkanes in crude oils is controlled by three factors: isotopic compositions of biosynthetic precursors, source water δD values, and postdepositional processes. The inherited difference in the lipid's biosynthetic origins and/or pathways is reflected by a small hydrogen isotopic variability within n-alkanes, but much larger differences in the δD values between n-alkanes and pristane/phytane. The shift toward lighter hydrogen isotopic compositions from Paleozoic to Upper Cretaceous oils in the WCSB reflects a special depositional setting and/or a minor contribution of terrestrial organic matter. The strong influence of source water δD values is demonstrated by the distinctively lower δD values of lacustrine oils than marine oils, and also by the high values for oils with source rocks deposited in evaporative environments. Thermal maturation may alter the δD values of the alkanes in the oil to some extent, but secondary oil migration does not appear to have had any significant impact. The fact that oils derived from source rocks that could be of Cambrian age still retain a strong signature of the hydrogen isotopic compositions of source organic matter, and source water, indicates that δD values are very useful for oil-source correlation and for paleoenvironmental reconstructions.     

利用天然环境同位素示踪法分析华丰煤矿四煤顶板出水水源

通过对华丰煤矿各含水层水样以及四煤顶板出水样的¹⁸O、D、³H同位素值分析,指出该矿三采区上下部砾岩含水层连通性差,分别由不同水源补给;井下四煤顶板出水仍为砂岩水,并非注浆水下漏所致。     

Provincial variation of carbon emissions from bituminous coal: influence of inertinite and other factors

We observe a 1.3 kg C/net GJ variation of carbon emissions due to inertinite abundance in some commercially available bituminous coal. An additional 0.9 kg C/net GJ variation of carbon emissions is expected due to the extent of coalification through the bituminous rank stages. Each percentage of sulfur in bituminous coal reduces carbon emissions by about 0.08 kg C/net GJ. Other factors, such as mineral content, liptinite abundance and individual macerals, also influence carbon emissions, but their quantitative effect is less certain.The large range of carbon emissions within the bituminous rank class suggests that rank-specific carbon emission factors are provincial rather than global. Although carbon emission factors that better account for this provincial variation might be calculated, we show that the data used for this calculation may vary according to the methods used to sample and analyze coal. Provincial variation of carbon emissions and the use of different coal sampling and analytical methods complicate the verification of national greenhouse gas inventories.     

Prediction of groundwater inrush into coal mines from aquifers underlying the coal seams in China: application of vulnerability index method to Zhangcun Coal Mine,China

Groundwater inrush is a geohazard that can significantly impact safe operations of the coal mines in China. Its occurrence is controlled by many factors and processes are often not amenable to mathematical expressions. To evaluate the water inrush risk, Professor Wu and his colleagues have proposed the vulnerability index approach by coupling the artificial neural network (ANN) and geographic information system (GIS). The detailed procedures of using this innovative approach are shown in a case study. Firstly, the powerful spatial data analysis functions of GIS was used to establish the thematic layer of each of the main factors that control the water inrush, and then to choose the training sample on the thematic layer with the ANN-BP Arithmetic. Secondly, the ANN evaluation model of the water inrush was established to determine the threshold value for each risk level with a histogram of the water inrush vulnerability index. As a result, the mine area was divided into four regions with different vulnerability levels and they served as the general guidelines for the mine operations.     

汉诺坝幔源单斜辉石巨晶氢同位素组成的离子探针分析：微尺度不均一性

运用离子探针技术测定了河北汉诺坝新生代玄武岩中3个单斜辉石巨晶的氢同位素组成，结果显示同一颗粒内部表现出微尺度的不均一性，2mm范围内δD的变化达到60‰。δD和氢含量之间不存在同步的变化，巨晶内部的化学成分均一，因此我们认为巨晶的氢同位素不均一性继续自母岩浆。母岩浆的氢同位素变化可能是去气过程中气相与熔体之间的分馏引起的。单斜辉石巨晶形成后很短的时间内即被寄主岩浆带至地表并经历了快速淬火。     

Metal recovery from power plant ash: An ecological approach to coal utilization

The growing use of coal in electrical generation is resulting in power plant solid waste becoming a serious national problem. For 1977, approximately 62 million tonnes of utility ash was produced in the US. If oil and gas burning units that were originally designed to burn coal switch back to that fuel, utility ash will be the fourth largest solid material produced in the US. Disposing of such quantities of wastes poses siting and pollution problems which are becoming critical in areas experiencing increased land use competition.An alternative to disposal is to recover the constituent metals of the ash. Aluminium, iron, manganese, calcium, titanium, and magnesium are all present in fly ash, the utility waste that poses the major disposal problem. This paper indicates that metal recovery is an attractive alternative if national instead of special interest goals are maximized. Metal recovery from fly ash is attractive on environmental, self-sufficiency, and stragegic grounds although it may not be a wise decision for an individual entrepreneur. The geography of power plant location within the US is increasing the economical attractiveness of this potential resource since large, new facilities produce sufficient quantities of material that can be used in nearby metal smelters.     

Numerical modelling and analysis of the influence of local variation in the thickness of a coal seam on surrounding stresses: Application to a practical case

One of the factors with the most influence in the carrying out of underground coal mining work is the stress state, especially when such work is carried out at great depths. One of the mining methods in which the influence of stresses becomes most patent is that of sublevel caving. For that reason, a variety of authors have studied many of the causes which condition the stress state of mining work of this kind at a general level.However, diverse types of conditioning factors exist at a local level that may substantially vary recorded pressures in the surroundings of the workings. Using numerical models, this paper analyses the specific case of a coal seam mined by the sublevel caving method at a depth of 1000 m which suffers significant increases in stress and major deformations in certain advance headings as a result of variations in the geometry and dimensions of the load itself, in particular, thinning.The results of the research carried out were validated by measuring the stresses in the area under study. Furthermore, on the basis of a retrospective analysis of what was observed in the mine, another series of predictive models were analyzed to establish the existing relation between the increase in stress due to thinning of the seam and the depth at which such thinning is situated.     

Soil improvement with coal ash and sewage sludge: a field experiment

A field experimental study was carried out successfully to improve the quality of the sandy soil by adding coal ash and sewage sludge. One ha of barren sandy soil field was chosen for the experiment in Shanghe County, Shandong Province, China. For soil amelioration and tree planting, two formulas of the mixture:coal ash, sewage sludge and soil, in ratios of 20:10:70 and 20:20:60, respectively, were used. Poplar trees were planted in pits filled with soils with additives (mixture of ash and sludge) as well as in the original sandy soil. In the 19th months after the trees were planted, the soils with additives were sampled and analyzed. The results show that the barren sandy soil was greatly improved after mixing with coal ash and sludge. The improved soils have remarkably higher nutrient concentrations, better texture, smaller bulk density, higher porosity and mass moisture content, and higher content of fine-grained minerals. During the first 22 months after planting, the annual increase in height of the trees grown in the soil with additives (4.78 m per year) was 55% higher than that of the control group (3.07 m per year), and the annual increase in diameter at the breast height (1.3 m) was 33 % higher (43.03 vs. 32.36 mm). Trees planted in soils with additives appeared healthier and shed leaves later than those in the control group. As the volume of the additives (30–40% in both formulas) is less than that of the sandy soil in and around the tree pits, it appears that the use of coal ash and sludge for tree planting and soil amelioration is environmentally safe even though the additives have relatively high heavy metal concentrations.