A study of class II methanol maser condensations in the star-forming region W48

The methanol-line spectra in two maser condensations at velocities ～41 and ～45 km/s in the star-forming region W48 have been studied. The intensity of the 2₀-3_?1 E (12.2 GHz) line is anticorrelated with that of the 5₁-6₀ A ⁺ (6.7 GHz) line: the intensity of the 5₁-6₀ A ⁺ (6.7 GHz) line is greater at ～41 km/s than at ～45 km/s, while the opposite is true of the 2₀-3_?1 E (12 GHz) line. The remaining class II methanol lines in this source demonstrate the same behavior as the 2₀-3_?1 E (12 GHz) line. This contradicts current concepts about the maser line intensities in various methanol transitions: according to model calculations, the intensities of all class II lines should vary in phase. This effect is confirmed for a large homogeneous sample of 67 sources. Possible explanations of the observed effect are proposed; one suggests the possible role of “transpumping” of the methanol-level populations in the maser condensations. The relationships between the variations of the 2₀-3_?1 E (12 GHz) and 5₁-6₀ A ⁺ (6.7 GHz) line intensities, which are present for all 67 sources considered, may indicate that the condensations are at different distances from the pumping source. The presence of condensations at various distances from the pumping source in all 67 sources can be understood if they are ice planets revolving in different orbits around massive stars or protostars.     

Magnetic fields in methanol maser condensations based on data for related regions. Seven sources: Observational parameters

Results of polarization observations of gas-dust condensations obtained on the Nançay radio telescope in the 1665 and 1667 MHz OH lines in all four Stokes parameters are reported. Seven OH maser sources associated with methanol masers were selected for this study. The goal was to estimate the magnetic fields in methanol condensations from the Zeeman splitting of OH maser lines associated with the methanol masers. The Gaussian parameters of features in the OH spectra are presented, and their polarization parameters are estimated: the degree of circular polarization m _C , flux density in linear polarization p, and degree of linear polarization m _L . The magnetic field intensity B has been estimated from the Zeeman splitting of the OH lines and approximation of the Stokes parameter V from the derivative of Stokes parameter I. B varies from ≤0.5 to 1.4 mG for different sources. The association of OH masers with methanol emission has been analyzed; the magnetic fields of OH masers in interstellar condensations associated with Class I methanol masers can be determined more reliably than the fields in interstellar condensations with OH masers associated with Class II methanol emission, and have higher values. The sizes of the studied regions suggest they may be bound structures such as Bok globules, small IRDC clouds, or protoplanetary disks.     

Magnetic fields in methanol maser condensations based on data for related regions. Seven sources: Astrophysical parameters

The astrophysical parameters of seven OH maser condensations are estimated based on magnetic fields obtained from polarization observations carried out on the Nan cay Radio Telescope (France) in the 1665 and 1667 MHz lines in four Stokes parameters. Regions in the studied sources containing the observed clusters of maser condensations, as well as clusters of Class I and II methanol masers, have been identified. The associations of the masers are real; i.e., the magnetic field in the clusters can also extend to groups of methanol masers. The linear dimensions of these associations have been found. The ratio of the mass to the magnetic flux, ratio of the thermal to the magnetic pressure, and virial relationships between energies (kinetic, magnetic, and gravitational) in the regions containing the OH andmethanol masers have been obtained. In sources whose magnetic fields have been determined fairly reliably, the ratio of the mass to the magnetic flux exceeds a critical value, and the energies of chaotic motions and of the magnetic field are considerably smaller than the gravitational binding energy. On the other hand, in all cases, the ratio of the thermal to the magnetic pressure is <1, suggesting that the clouds may be in amagnetically dominated regime. This inconsistency is related to probable uncertainties in the the magnetic field values and the estimated distances to the sources, which may lead to overestimation of the sizes of the regions studied.     

Search for class I methanol maser emission toward several supernova remnants

Observations at 44 GHz in the 7₀−6₁ A ⁺ methanol line have been carried out on the 20-m telescope of the Onsala Space Observatory (Sweden) in the directions of the poorly studied region G27.4–0.2 and of several supernova remnants, at the coordinates of the OH(1720) maser satellite emission, with the aim of searching for Class I methanol maser emission in these sources. The region G27.4–0.2 has beenmapped, and contains maser sources and two supernova remnants with similar coordinates and radial velocities, which may accelerate condensation of the ambient gas-dust medium. This may play a role in enhancing the probability of methanol formation and maser emission. This is the first detection of 44 GHz maser emission in this source, and this maser is among the 10% of the strongest Class I methanol masers, within the uncertainties in the integrated flux (of a total of 198 currently knownmasers). A 27′ × 27′ region around the maser has been mapped at 44 GHz in steps of 1′. The 44-GHz emission forms only within the previously known maser region. Further studies in water lines are needed to estimate the influence of shocks from supernovae. No 44-GHz Class I methanol maser emission was detected at the 3σ level at the coordinates of the OH(1720) satellite emission in six supernova remnants; i.e., the presence of OH(1720) emission is not a sufficient condition for the detection of Class I methanol masers.     

Methanol maser groups and class I emission: Flux density distribution

A search for a relationship between class I and class II methanol maser flux densities has been carried out. A large sample of mixed-type sources has been studied, with each source in the sample radiating as a class I and class II maser simultaneously. In methanol maser groups for which the positions of prominent spectral features at different radial velocities coincide at different frequencies, the fluxes are anticorrelated, and are related as log S _6.7+12.2 = (?1.68 ± 0.38) × log S ₄₄ + (4.01 ± 0.60). For group I, which includes sources with preferred pumping for masers emitting at 6.7 GHz, the relationship between the 6.7 GHz masers and 44 GHz masers is less steep than for group II, which contains sources with normal pumping of class II masers. This implies that class I methanol masers that correspond to group I are suppressed more strongly.     

A statistical analysis of methanol maser groups

An analysis of the flux densities of the 5₁-6₀ A ⁺ (6.7 GHz) and 2₀-3_?1 E (12.2 GHz) class II methanol maser lines in a large and homogeneous sample of maser sources has been carried out. For convenience, the maser lines were divided into three groups: group I contains spectral features for the lines most prominent in the 5₁-6₀ A ⁺ (6.7 GHz) transition, group II contains spectral features for the lines strongest in the 2₀-3_?1 E (12.2 GHz) transition, group III contains spectral features for which the velocities of the emission maxima of the two lines coincide. The same dependence was found for group II and group III: log S _6.7=(0.79±0.05)×log S _12.2+(0.79±0.05). The spectral features in group I do not obey this relation, and deviations from a linear dependence are considerably greater. It is suggested that methanol class II masers be divided into a subclass IIa, which has special conditions favoring 6.7 GHz masers, and a subclass IIb, which is comprised of the 12.2 GHz masers and those 6.7 GHz masers that necessarily accompany them under the same conditions.     

Search for class I methanol maser emission in various types of objects in the interstellar medium

Observations of various types of objects in the northern sky were obtained at 44 GHz in the 7₀-6₁ A ⁺ methanol line on the 20-m Onsala radio telescope (Sweden), in order to search for Class I methanol maser emission in the interstellar medium: regions of formation of high-mass stars, dust rings around HII regions, and protostellar candidates associated with powerful molecular outflows and Galactic HII regions. Seven new Class Imethanolmasers have been discovered toward regions of formation of highmass stars, and the existence of two previously observed masers confirmed. The following conclusions are drawn: (1) neither the association of a bipolar outflow manifest in the wings of CO lines with a highmass protostellar object (HMPO) nor the presence of thermal emission in lines of complex molecules are sufficient conditions for the detection of Class I methanol emission; no association with HMPOs radiating at 44 GHz was found for EGOs (a new class of object tracing bipolar outflows); (2) the existence of H₂O masers and Class II methanol masers in the region of aHMPOenhances the probability of detecting Class I methanol emission toward the HMPO; Class II methanol masers with stronger line fluxes are associated with Class I methanol masers.     

Map of the 6.7 GHz class II methanol maser emission of the protoplanetary disk G23.01-0.41

We present images of the star-forming regionG23.01–0.41 at 6.7GHz in the Class II methanol maser transition 5₁–6₀ A ⁺, produced from archival observations on the European VLBI Network. Our map of the source and its maser spots contains 24 maser components. The data for each spot—absolute coordinates, coordinates relative to the calibration feature, peak flux and flux integrated over the spot, size, position angle, velocity along the line of sight, and line full width at half-maximum—are collected in tabular form. The spatial region occupied by the maser spots is approximated by a 200×130 milliarcsec ellipse in position angle PA = −0.40°, centered on the absolute coordinates α ₀ = 18^h34^m40.282^s, δ ₀ = −09°00′38.27″ (J2000). If the source is a protoplanetary disk, then, for the distance estimate derived from trigonometric parallax, its diameter is 1800 AU, and the mass of the central protostar is 23.5M _⊙.     

Class I methanol maser emission in infrared clouds and the third version of the Astro Space Center MMI/SFR catalog

We have revised the Astro Space Center catalog of Class I methanol masers detected in star-forming regions (MMI/SFR), mainly at 44 GHz, and created a new electronic version of the catalog. Currently, the catalog contains 206 objects, selected from publications through 2011 inclusive. The data from the survey of Chen et al. (2011), performed specifically for objects EGO, which form a new specific catalog, are not included. The MMI/SFR objects were identified with emission and absorption objects in the near IR, detected during the MSX and Spitzer space missions. Seventy-one percent of Class I methanol masers that emit at 44 GHz and fall within the Galactic longitude range surveyed by Spitzer (GLIMPSE) are identified with Spitzer Dark Clouds (SDCs), and 42% with Extended Green Objects (EGOs). It is possible that Class I methanol masers arise in isolated, self-gravitating clumps, such as SDCs, at certain stages of their evolution. A sample of SDCs is proposed as a new target list for Class I methanol maser searches. A detailed statistical analysis was carried out, taking into account the characteristics of the regions of MMI/SFR formation presented in the catalog.     

A magnetized disk around an O star: Polarization of the OH maser emission

W75N is one of the first OH masers in which 100% linear polarization has been observed in several spots. Two spots contain Zeeman pairs, corresponding to magnetic fields of 5.2 and 7.7 mG. Another Zeeman pair consisting of two linearly polarized components was tentatively detected in one spot. The linearly polarized spots are σ components for the case when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the line of sight. For these spots, the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the circumstellar disk, though a correction for Galactic Faraday rotation may considerably modify this conclusion.     

Variability of the H2O maser emission in S255

The paper reports the results of observations of the H₂O maser in S255 carried out in 1982–1985 and 1990–2000 on the 22-meter telescope of the Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory. The H₂O maser emission extends from ?2 to 14 km/s and is mainly concentrated in three radial-velocity intervals. The velocity of the central group of emission features coincides with that of the molecular cloud, while the two lateral groups (blueshifted and redshifted) are positioned in the spectrum more or less symmetrically relative to the central feature. During the monitoring of S255, two phenomena were observed. First, the integrated flux of the H₂O maser emission varied in a cyclic manner with a period of two to four years; this may be connected with activity of the protostar. Second, the fluxes of emission features (or groups of features) were anticorrelated. The emission of the three groups of features noted above dominated in succession. In some time intervals, a triplet spectral structure with anticorrelation between the fluxes of the lateral components and of the central and lateral components was observed. The flux anticorrelation between groups of features and individual features could be due to competition between spatial emission pumping modes in a nonuniform Keplerian disk.     

The source of maser emission in W33C (G12.8-0.2)

The results of observations of the H₂O and OH maser sources toward the region of W33C (G12.8-0.2) are reported. The observations were carried out on the 22-m radio telescope of the Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory in the 1.35-cm water-vapor line and on the Large Radio Telescope at Nan?ay (France), in the main (1665 and 1667 MHz) and satellite (1612 and 1720 MHz) OH lines. Multiple, strongly variable, short-lived H₂O emission features were detected in a broad interval of radial velocities, from ?7 to 55 km/s. OH maser emission in the 1667-MHz line was detected at velocities of 35?C41 km/s. The Stokes parameters of the maser emission in the main OH lines 1665 and 1667 MHz were measured. Zeeman splitting was detected in the 1665-MHz line at 33.4 and 39.4 km/s, and in the 1667 MHz line only at 39.4 km/s. The magnetic-field intensity was estimated. Appreciable variability of the Zeeman splitting components was observed at 39 and 39.8 km/s in both main lines. The extended spectrum and fast variability of the H₂O maser emission, together with the variability of the Zeeman-splitting components in the main OH lines, may indicate a composite clumpy structure of the molecular cloud and the presence of large-scale rotation, bipolar outflows, and turbulent motions of material in this cloud.     

砂岩临界状态的声发射能量与等候时间差统计分布规律

应力作用下的脆性岩石破裂过程的能量释放具有临界特征,为了解岩石加载过程临界点前后声发射(AE)能量及时间的统计分布规律,在实验室对砂岩进行了单轴压缩试验,得到了临界点前后加载阶段的声发射信号特征,并分析了各加载状态下的函数分布特征,结果表明,(1)由声发射定位发现了岩石试样从均匀的随机扩张到向条带集中直至最后贯通的过程,贯通前的裂纹扩展导致累计能量(2.8×10~8 a J)和累计声发射数(6.68×10~5)发生突变,标志着达到临界态;(2)临界点前后加载阶段的声发射能量概率密度函数(PDF)在4个数量级内满足幂律分布(见式(1)),通过最大似然估计法统计发现临界点前后两个阶段幂值分布存在一定差异;(3)任何能量区间范围内,等候时间差d符合双幂定律。在小的时间差范围(d0.1s)内各能量区间服从相同的幂律分布,在大的时间差范围(d0.1 s)内不同的能量区间会出现不同的幂律特征;(4)结合能量统计分布规律与等候时间差d分布规律,临界态的声发射信号与全过程的声发射信号分布规律较为一致,全过程分布规律的能量信号主要集中在临界点后的加载过程。     

Broadening of electron cyclotron maser emission lines in a nonuniform magnetic field

The formation of cyclotron maser emission lines in a non-uniform (regular or random) magnetic field is studied. In the presence of sufficiently small inhomogeneity, the line shape can be described by a broadened Gaussian profile. In the case of stronger inhomogeneity, the initial Gaussian profile splits into two Gaussian components, which could be observationally perceived as “harmonics.” A relation between the distribution of local magnetic trap sizes and the distribution of the spectral widths of solar radio spikes is derived. Possible applications of the results to the interpretation of solar radio spikes and related problems are discussed.     

Evolution of the H2O maser emission in G10.6-0.4

The water-vapor maser emission in the source G10.6-0.4 associated with an active starforming region (OB star cluster) is analyzed. The maser was monitored from 1981–2004 using the 22-meter radio telescope of the Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory. Statistical processing of the results revealed the presence of structural formations on various scales. The individual H₂O maser features may form ordered structures with velocity (V _LSR) gradients, localized in separate clusters of maser features. The statistical variations of the V _LSR values for the maser components may be due to the accretion of material onto the OB star cluster in G10.6-0.4 together with the rotation of the molecular cloud core. A model with a rotating, nonuniform condensation of accreted material in the vicinity of the stellar cluster is proposed to explain the variations of the velocity centroid of the H₂O spectra. The integrated flux variations are explained well by a model in which the central source is an OB star cluster, possibly containing five to six stars. An important role in the evolution of the maser emission, as well as of the source as a whole, may be played by turbulent motions of the gas.     

Cyclic activity of the H2O maser emission towards NGC 2071

A catalog of maser spectra in the 1.35-cm water-vapor line towards the maser source NGC 2071 in a region of massive star formation is presented for 1994–2010. The observations were carried out using the 22-m antenna of the Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory with a spectral resolution of 0.101 km/s (0.0822 km/s after the end of 2005). Based on the data throughout the monitoring since 1980, two very different cycles of maser activity were found. The first (1980–1992) is characterized by high activity within a broad range of radial velocities. Emission at velocities near 7 km/s predominated in 1980–1986, and emission near 14–16 km/s, in 1987–1992. In 1997–2008, the maser intensity was appreciably lower than in the first activity cycle. Numerous flares of individual emission features were observed. Identifications based on VLA data show that strong flares took place in both maser sources, IRS1 and IRS3. Both sources demonstrated a low level of maser activity during essentially the same epochs (1977, 1995–1997, and the close of 2009 through the beginning of 2010), although the sources are separated by at least 2000 AU.     

Spatial structure of the class I methanol maser DR21(OH) at 44 GHz in 2003

We present the results of VLA observations of the class I methanol maser DR21(OH) at 44 GHz. The observations, retrieved from the NRAO archive (USA), were carried out in 2003. The maser has 18 spatial components, 17 of them confined to two clusters and one isolated component. In general, this spatial structure is similar to the structure observed earlier by other authors; the detected differences are too small to enable us to derive proper motions of the components: no proper motions exceeding the uncertainties were detecting during the 8 years since 1995. Amaser flare was observed in one of the spectral features for the first time. This is the first brightening detected for a class I methanol maser.     

Thermal emission of methanol and other molecules at millimeter wavelengths

The paper reports the results of a survey of Galactic star-forming regions in the methanol lines 8_?1–7₀ E at 229.8 GHz, 3_?2–4_?1 E at 230.0 GHz, 0₀–1_?1 E at 108.9 GHz, and a series of J ₁–J ₀ E lines near 165 GHz. In addition to the methanol lines, lines of methyl cyanide (CH₃CN), cyanoacetylene (HC₃N), methyl formate (HCOOCH₃), and sulphur dioxide (SO₂) were detected. Analysis of the data indicates that the methanol emission arises in warm (30–50 K) gas.     

Variations of the H2O maser emission of W51M in 1981–1998

The results of spectral monitoring of the maser source W51M carried out in the water-vapor line at 1.35 cm (22GHz) on the 22-m telescope of the Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory in 1981–1998 are reported and interpreted. Long-term variations of the maser flux with a period of 12–13 years are found. W51M may be a rotating and simultaneously expanding toroidal cloud of gas and dust around a young star with a mass of the order of ～15M _⊙, with numerous high-velocity jets of maser condensations flowing out in two broad cones along the polar axis of the torus. A stellar wind with a velocity of about 2000–3000 km/s is responsible for the maser pumping.     

深圳岩溶空间发育规律统计分析

粤港澳大湾区建设是国家重大发展战略,而深圳市又是大湾区建设的核心引擎之一。深圳市岩溶地区行政区划上主要发育在龙岗区和坪山区,岩溶地质灾害给地下空间开发利用与城市安全构成极大挑战。通过收集深圳市岩溶勘察钻探数据,从地层岩性、基岩埋深与埋藏类型、地下水主要侵蚀指标、地下水埋深与年变化幅度、溶洞埋深、顶板厚度、洞高、充填情况、线溶率、见洞率、地表岩溶发育密度等方面对深圳市岩溶空间发育特征进行了统计分析。结果表明：深圳市岩溶主要为浅覆盖型,但溶洞空间特征变异性极大。从统计上讲,溶洞平均埋深约为20 m,平均洞高为2.5～4.0 m,以半充填为主,充填物主要为粉质黏土;平均线溶率约为15%,见洞率约为40%,地表岩溶发育密度超过300个/km²,综合上看,深圳场地岩溶发育等级超过90%为强发育。上述主要岩溶特征参数服从对数正态分布和Weibull分布。总体上,灰岩地层溶洞顶板厚度随着岩面埋深而呈现递减的趋势,而大理岩地层溶洞顶板厚度则与岩面埋深无关;已发育的溶洞高度与基岩面埋深、溶洞顶板厚度、地下水主要侵蚀指标及地下水埋深无关或弱正相关。研究成果为深圳市岩溶灾害风险评估提供了重要的先验信息。