The character and age structure of valley fills in upper Wolumla Creek catchment,south coast,New South Wales,Australia

Extensive valley fills at the base of the escarpment in upper Wolumla Creek, on the south coast of New South Wales, Australia, have formed from a combination of ‘cut and fill’ processes. The valley fills comprise series of alternating, horizontally bedded sand and mud units, reflecting reworking of detritus from deeply weathered granites of the Bega Batholith. Sand units are deposited as sand sheets or splays on floodplain surfaces or in floodouts that form atop intact valley fill surfaces downstream of discontinuous gullies. Alternatively, sands are deposited from bedload and form bars or part of the valley floor within channel fills. Organic-rich mud units are deposited from suspension in swamps or in seepage zones at the distal margin of floodouts. Within 5 km of the escarpment, valley deposits grade downstream from sand sheet and splay deposition in floodouts, to mud deposition in swamp and seepage zones. Radiocarbon dates indicate that virtually the entire valley fill of upper Wolumla Creek was excavated prior to 6000 years BP . Remnant terraces are evident at valley margins. The valley subsequently filled between 6000 years BP and 1000 years BP producing valley fills around 12 m deep, but no greater than 300 m wide. Reincision into the valley fill, on a scale smaller than the present incision phase, is indicated at around 1000 years BP , following which the channel refilled. Portion plans dated from 1865 refer to the study area as ‘Wolumla Big Flat’, and show large areas of swampy terrain, suggesting that the valley fill had re-established by this time. Within a few decades of European settlement the valley fill incised once more. Upper Wolumla Creek now has a channel over 10 m deep and 100 m wide in places, draining a catchment area of less than 20 km². © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Active tectonic blocks and strong earthquakes in the continent of China

The primary pattern of the late Cenozoic to the present tectonic deformation of China is characterized by relative movements and interactions of tectonic blocks. Active tectonic blocks are geological units that have been separated from each other by active tectonic zones. Boundaries between blocks are the highest gradient of differential movement. Most of tectonic activity occurs on boundaries of the blocks. Earthquakes are results of abrupt releases of accumulated strain energy that reaches the threshold of strength of the earth’s crust. Boundaries of tectonic blocks are the locations of most discontinuous deformation and highest gradient of stress accumulation, thus are the most likely places for strain energy accumulation and releases, and in turn, devastating earthquakes. Almost all earthquakes of magnitude greater than 8 and 80%–90% of earthquakes of magnitude over 7 occur along boundaries of active tectonic blocks. This fact indicates that differential movements and interactions of active tectonic blocks are the primary mechanism for the occurrences of devastating earthquakes.     

Creep processes in landslides

Displacement of landslide blocks after initial slope failure can be very slow. In most cases movement of the blocks is attributed to sliding along a well-defined slip surface. It is discussed here whether, in addition to these so-called plastic movements, (continuous) creep processes are involved in the slow displacement. The study was carried out in the downstream part of the Bonne valley in the French Alps, where landslide complexes have developed in varved clay material. Displacements of landslide blocks were measured during a period of three years. Inclinometer measurements in flexible tubes showed that a creep zone developed above the slip surface in a zone about 1 m thick. These field observations on creep processes were supported by soil mechanical analysis. Threshold values for creep found in the laboratory nearly coincide with threshold values calculated from a field creep model developed by Ter-Stepanian. During the measuring period ±15 per cent of the displacement of the blocks possibly occurred via continuous creep.     

Effects of hillslope topography on runoff response in a small catchment in the Fudoji Experimental Watershed,central Japan

We investigated the role of different hillslope units with different topographic characteristics on runoff generation processes based on field observations at two types of hillslopes (0·1 ha): a valley‐head (a convergent hillslope) and a side slope (a planar hillslope), as well as at three small catchments having two types of slopes with different drainage areas ranging from 1·9 to 49·7 ha in the Tanakami Mountains, central Japan. We found that the contribution of the hillslope unit type to small catchment runoff varied with the magnitude of rainfall. When the total amount of rainfall for a single storm event was < 35 mm, runoff in the small catchment was predominantly generated from the side slope. As the amount of rainfall increased (>35 mm), the valley‐head also began to contribute to the catchment runoff, adding to runoff from the side slope. Although the direct runoff from the valley‐head was greater than that from the side slope, the contribution from the side slope was quantitatively greater than that from the valley‐head due to the proportionally larger area occupied by the side slope in the small catchment. The storm runoff responses of the small catchments reflected the change in the runoff components of each hillslope unit as the amount of rainfall increased and rainfall patterns changed. However, similar runoff responses were found for the small catchments with different areas. The similarity of the runoff responses is attributable to overlay effects of different hillslope units and the similar composition ratios of the valley‐head and side slope in the catchments. This study suggests that the relative roles of the valley‐head and side slope are important in runoff generation and solute transport as the catchment size increases from a hillslope/headwater to a small catchment. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Rb-Sr,Sm-Nd,K-Ca,O, and H isotopic study of Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary sediments,Caravaca, Spain: evidence for an oceanic impact site

Isotopic ratios and trace element abundances were measured on samples of Ir-enriched clay at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, and in carbonate and marl from 5 cm below and 3 cm above the boundary. Samples were leached with acetic acid to remove carbonate, and with hydrochloric acid. Leachates and residues were measured. The Sr, Nd, O and H isotopic compositions of the boundary clay residues are distinct from those of the stratigraphically neighboring materials. The data indicate that most of the clay material was derived from a terrestrial source with relatively low⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and high¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios. The δ¹⁸O data suggest that the detritus has been modified by submarine weathering. K-Ca and Rb-Sr systematics, as well as O isotope ratios of K-feldspar spherules within the boundary clay, suggest that they are predominantly authigenic and may have formed after the time of deposition. However, Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr isotopic data indicate that the spherules contain relict material that provides information on the nature of the original detritus. The isotopic evidence for foreign terrestrial detritus in the boundary clay, the low rare earth element concentrations and high Ni concentration, support the hypothesis of a terminal Cretaceous asteroidal impact that produced a global layer of fallout. The data are most easily explained if the impact site was on oceanic crust rather than continental crust, and if a substantial fraction of the fallout was derived from relatively deep within the lithosphere (>3 km). This would probably require a single large impactor.     

Weathering,erosion and sediment composition in a high‐gradient river,Calabria, Italy

Source rock lithology and immediate modifying processes, such as chemical weathering and mechanical erosion, are primary controls on fluvial sediment supply. Sand composition and Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) of parent rocks, soil and fluvial sand of the Savuto River watershed, Calabria (Italy), were used to evaluate the modifications of source rocks through different sections of the basin, characterized by different geomorphic processes, in a sub‐humid Mediterranean climate. The headwaters, with gentle topography, produce a coarse‐grained sediment load derived from deeply weathered gneiss, having sand of quartzofeldspathic composition, compositionally very different from in situ degraded bedrock. Maximum estimated CIA values suggest that source rock has been affected significantly by weathering, and it testifies to a climatic threshold on the destruction of the bedrock. The mid‐course has steeper slopes and a deeply incised valley; bedrock consists of mica‐schist and phyllite with a very thin regolith, which provides large cobble to very coarse sand sediments to the main channel. Slope instability, with an areal incidence of over 40 per cent, largely supplies detritus to the main channel. Sand‐sized detritus of soil and fluvial sand is lithic. Estimated CIA value testifies to a significant weathering of the bedrock too, even if in this part of the drainage basin steeper slopes allow erosion to exceed chemical weathering. The lower course has a braided pattern and sediment load is coarse to medium–fine grained. The river cuts across Palaeozoic crystalline rocks and Miocene siliciclastic deposits. Sand‐sized detritus, contributed from these rocks and homogenized by transport processes, has been found in the quartzolithic distal samples. Field and laboratory evidence indicates that landscape development was the result of extensive weathering during the last postglacial temperature maximum in the headwaters, and of mass‐failure and fluvial erosional processes in the mid‐ and low course. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A NEW APPROXIMATE METHOD FOR DIRECTLY INTERPRETING GRAVITY ANOMALY PROFILES CAUSED BY SURFACE GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES*

For outcropping bodies an approximate direct interpretation of the associated gravity anomaly is generally obtained with the flat plate formula. Results can be significantly improved if the causative body is approximated by a bell shape instead of a flat plate. A set of parameter curves allows the conversion to depth data. The validity of the method is borne out by synthetic models and by field examples in a Nevada valley with Tertiary and in the Los Angeles Basin. The method provides structural definition more accurate than can be obtained with the flat plate formula, particularly in the case of narrow anomalies.     

Evaluation of building fundamental periods and effects of local geology on ground motion parameters in the Siracusa area,Italy

The Siracusa area, located in the southeastern coast of Sicily (Italy), is mainly characterized by the outcropping of a limestone formation. This lithotype, which is overlain by soft sediments such as sandy clays and detritus, can be considered as the local bedrock. Records of ambient noise, processed through spectral ratio techniques, were used to assess the dynamic properties of a sample survey of both reinforced concrete and masonry buildings. The results show that experimental periods of existing buildings are always lower than those proposed by the European seismic code. This disagreement could be related to the role played by stiff masonry infills, as well as the influence of adjacent buildings, especially in downtown Siracusa. Numerical modeling was also used to study the effect of local geology on the seismic site response of the Siracusa area. Seismic urban scenarios were simulated considering a moderate magnitude earthquake (December 13th, 1990) to assess the shaking level of the different outcropping formations. Spectral acceleration at different periods, peak ground acceleration, and velocity were obtained through a stochastic approach adopting an extended source model code. Seismic ground motion scenario highlighted that amplification mainly occurs in the sedimentary deposits that are widespread to the south of the study area as well as on some spot areas where coarse detritus and sandy clay outcrop. On the other hand, the level of shaking appears moderate in all zones with outcropping limestone and volcanics.     

Experiment of Dividing the Active Blocks Based on Horizontal Crustal Movement Observed by GPS

In this paper, the discrepancy between the movements of intraplate blocks and plates isdiscussed, and the method to divide the intraplate active blocks is presented by selecting Bursaformula as the kinematic model for the intraplate blocks. Based on the data of three GPScampaigns in North-China network in l995, 1996 and l999, respectively, the northern area inNorth China is divided into eight small blocks with the mathematical model and methodpresented in this paper. The divided blocks based on tbe horizontal and vertical crustalmovements in the paper are consistent or approximate with each other in the area as a whole.The divided blocks in the paper is also basically accordant with the neotectonic movement,which indicates that the current movement of active blocks in this area is the succession anddevelopment of neotectonic movement. Moreover, some new activity characteristics in the areahave been revealed by the tectonic units divided with the horizontal crustal movement.     

Tailings fans and valley‐spur cutoffs created by hydraulic mining

Sand and gravel tailings from nineteenth century open‐pit hydraulic gold mines formed large alluvial fans at tributary con?uences in the northwestern Sierra Nevada, California. In the Bear River watershed, several of these fans were so large that they blocked main channels for decades. Some channels not only aggraded deeply, but also moved laterally and cut across the inner bends of valley spurs. Now locked in bedrock channels, these valley‐spur cutoffs impose local controls on geomorphic, hydraulic, and sedimentary processes. One cutoff has incised 25 m into bedrock over the past century (25 cm a^?1) with rapid initial incision rates of up to 50 cm a^?1 (1884–1890). Recognition of spur cutoffs in the geological record may help to identify large landslides and provide an analogue for a type of natural earth?ll dam spillway not prone to catastrophic failures. Tailing fans, valley‐spur cutoffs, and the sediment they trap are described from contemporary accounts and recent ?eld conditions in the Bear River watershed. These anthropogenic changes represent a major shift in the watershed from supply‐limited to transport‐limited sediment budgets and a change in geomorphic processes away from long‐term drainage evolution dominated by ingrown meanders. The large volumes of mining sediment stored in these landforms will be slowly released over the next millennium and could be signi?cant to contemporary ecological and public health issues due to recent ?ndings of high mercury loadings associated with hydraulic mines. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Geochemical mapping of carbonate sediments in the Makgadikgadi basin,Botswana using moderate resolution remote sensing data

This paper maps the carbonate geochemistry of the Makgadikgadi Pans region of northern Botswana from moderate resolution (500 m pixels) remotely sensed data, to assess the impact of various geomorphological processes on surficial carbonate distribution. Previous palaeo‐environmental studies have demonstrated that the pans have experienced several highstands during the Quaternary, forming calcretes around shoreline embayments. The pans are also a significant regional source of dust, and some workers have suggested that surficial carbonate distributions may be controlled, in part, by wind regime. Field studies of carbonate deposits in the region have also highlighted the importance of fluvial and groundwater processes in calcrete formation. However, due to the large area involved and problems of accessibility, the carbonate distribution across the entire Makgadikgadi basin remains poorly understood. The MODIS instrument permits mapping of carbonate distribution over large areas; comparison with estimates from Landsat Thematic Mapper data show reasonable agreement, and there is good agreement with estimates from laboratory analysis of field samples. The results suggest that palaeo‐lake highstands, reconstructed here using the SRTM 3 arc‐second digital elevation model, have left behind surficial carbonate deposits, which can be mapped by the MODIS instrument. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

浅圆沉积谷地对瑞雷波的散射--高频解

利用波函数展开法给出了浅圆沉积谷地对瑞雷波散射的一个高频解析解,并分析了入射频率、沉积谷地宽度和深度等因素对波散射的影响. 数值结果表明,由于沉积谷地的影响, 在入射波的近端,地表位移分布变得相对复杂,但位移幅值并不大;而在入射波远端,地表位移分布相对简单,但位移幅值却相对较大,多数情况下高于沉积地表位移幅值.      

Scattering of Rayleigh waves by a shallow circular alluvial valley： High-frequency solution

Introduction The effect of local site conditions on wave propagation is one of the most attractive topics in engineering seismology. It may be resolved by either a numerical method or an analytical method. Numerical methods include the finite difference, finite element, boundary element method, etc. The analytical method is the wave function expansion method. The advantage of these numerical methods is that they can be applied to local inhomogeneity of arbitrary shapes, but analytical method …     

Elimination of effects of earthquake in monitoring crustal movement

Monitoring crustal movements is important in understanding the earth surface and in developing theories about plate tectonics. Plate tectonics describes earth crust which consists of a number of plates moving relative to one another. Global plate models suggest that plate movements are constant due to the fact that relative movements of plates were represented by averaged plate motion. However, if an earthquake occurs, the uniform movement of related plates does not follow the regular trend. In analysis by Kalman Filter, the effects of an earthquake occured within crustal movement monitoring period by geodetic method have been eliminated by a proposed approach, Fading Memory Filter. The proposed method was tested using a real/simulated data. The results of the test showed that the effect of a strong earthquake (M_w = 7.1) which had occurred in the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba was eliminated. Consequently, the proposed method is capable of removing or eliminating a suddan effect in monitoring crustal movements in the analysis by using the Kalman Filter.     

The holocenic evolution of a stretch of an eastern italian alpine valley

The morphological evolution of a stretch of an alpine valley located in the Eastern Italian Alps is described. This has been conditioned by a great alluvial fan that was formed as a consequence of interconnected events, deriving from large rockfalls which occurred in the late glacial period at the head of the Missiaga–Bordina valley, on the left side of the Agordo basin. The aggradation of the alluvial fan blocked the Cordevole valley south of the Agordo basin and produced a lake that is documented by lacustrine sediments. Age determination by ¹⁴C techniques on wood remnants found in these sediments fixes the life of the lake at between approximately 5880 and 5300 years BP . This represents, indirectly, the age of the main phase of the development of the fan. After the building up of the alluvial fan, an erosional phase began, leading to the formation of the present landscape. A series of illustrations depicts the sequence of the fan's development.     

Effects of hillslope topography on hydrological responses in a weathered granite mountain,Japan: comparison of the runoff response between the valley‐head and the side slope

To evaluate the effects of hillslope topography on storm runoff in a weathered granite mountain, discharge rate, soil pore water pressures, and water chemistry were observed on two types of hillslope: a valley‐head (a concave hillslope) and a side slope (a planar hillslope). Hydrological responses on the valley‐head and side slope reflected their respective topographic characteristics and varied with the rainfall magnitude. During small rainfall events (<35 mm), runoff from the side slope occurred rapidly relative to the valley‐head. The valley‐head showed little response in storm runoff. As rainfall amounts increased (35–60 mm), the valley‐head yielded a higher flow relative to the side slope. For large rainfall events (>60 mm), runoff from both hillslopes increased with rainfall, although that from the valley‐head was larger than that from the side slope. The differences in the runoff responses were caused by differences in the roles of lower‐slope soils and the convergence of the hillslope. During small rainfall events, the side slope could store little water; in contrast, all rainwater could be stored in the soils at the valley‐head hollow. As the amount of rainfall increased, the subsurface saturated area of the valley‐head extended from the bottom to the upper portion of the slope, with the contributions of transient groundwater via lateral preferential flowpaths due to the high concentration of subsurface water. Conversely, saturated subsurface flow did not contribute to runoff responses, and the subsurface saturated area at the side slope did not extend to the upper slope for the same storm size. During large rainfall events, expansion of the subsurface saturated area was observed in both hillslopes. Thus, differences in the concentration of subsurface water, reflecting hillslope topography, may create differences in the extension of the subsurface saturated area, as well as variability in runoff responses. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Active tectonic blocks and strong earthquakes in the continent of China

The primary pattern of the late Cenozoic to the present tectonic deformation of China is characterized by relative movements and interactions of tectonic blocks. Active tectonic blocks are geological units that have been separated from each other by active tectonic zones. Boundaries between blocks are the highest gradient of differential movement. Most of tectonic activity occurs on boundaries of the blocks. Earthquakes are results of abrupt releases of accumulated strain energy that reaches the threshold of strength of the earth's crust. Boundaries of tectonic blocks are the locations of most discontinuous deformation and highest gradient of stress accumulation, thus are the most likely places for strain energy accumulation and releases, and in turn, devastating earthquakes. Almost all earthquakes of magnitude greater than 8 and 80%-90% of earthquakes of magnitude over 7 occur along boundaries of active tectonic blocks. This fact indicates that differential movements and interactions of active tectonic blocks are the primary mechanism for the occurrences of devastating earthquakes.     

Gravity interpretation of nonoutcropping sedimentary basins in which the density contrast decreases parabolically with depth

The decrease in density contrast of sedimentary rocks with depth in many sedimentary basins can be approximated by a parabolic density function. Analytical gravity expression of an outcropping two-dimensional vertical step along which the density contrast decreases parabolically with depth is derived in the space domain. A modification ofBott's (1960) method of gravity interpretation is proposed by considering two outcropping vertical steps on either side of the first and last observation points in addition toN outcropping vertical prisms in order to interpret the gravity anomalies of nonoutcropping basins. The thicknesses of the two outcropping vertical steps are made equal to the thicknesses of the two outcropping vertical prisms placed below the first and last observation points. The initial depth estimates of the sedimentary basin are calculated by the infinite slab formula ofVisweswara Rao et al. (1993). The gravity effects of theN outcropping prisms and the two outcropping vertical steps are calculated at each anomaly point and the depth to the floor of the basin are adjusted based on the differences between the observed and calculated anomalies. A gravity anomaly profile of Los Angeles basin, California is interpreted.     

Distinguishing between debris flows and hyperconcentrated flows: an example from the eastern Swiss Alps

Much research has been done on water‐rich mass flows, but the distinction between hyperconcentrated flows and debris flows, and whether the two are indeed different processes, continue to be debated. Here, we contribute to the ongoing discussion of these phenomena by describing and interpreting the deposit of a large landslide‐induced mass flow in the eastern Swiss Alps. About 9400 years ago, 10‐12 km³ of limestone detached from the wall of the Vorderrhein River valley and rapidly fragmented while sliding towards the valley bottom. The rock mass struck the valley floor with enormous force and liquefied at least 1 km³ of valley‐fill sediments. A slurry of liquefied sediment – the ‘Bonaduz gravel’ – traveled tens of kilometres down the Vorderrhein valley from the impact site, carrying huge fragments of rockslide debris that became stranded on the valley floor, forming hills termed ‘tomas’. Part of the flow was deflected by a cross‐valley barrier and traveled 14 km up a tributary of the Vorderrhein valley. The Bonaduz gravel is >65 m thick and fines upward from massive sandy cobble gravel at its base to silty sand at its top. Sedimentologic and geomorphic evidence indicates that Bonaduz gravel was transported as a hyperconcentated flow, likely above a basal carpet of coarse diamictic sediment that behaved as a debris flow. The large amount of water involved in the flow indicates that at least part of the Flims rockslide entered a lake. The Bonaduz deposit shares many properties with sediments left by hyperconcentrated flows generated in flumes, including normal grading and elutriation pipes produced by the rapid escape of fluids when the flow comes to rest. These properties are characteristic of non‐Newtonian laminar flows with high sediment concentrations. Our study reinforces laboratory and theoretical studies showing that debris flows and hyperconcentrated flows are different processes. © 2017 The Authors. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.     

The distribution of infrared radiative flux densities and their divergence along the symmetry line of an idealized valley

Summary This investigation concerns itself with the determination of infrared radiative flux divergence along the symmetry line of a cone. Such a cone, imbedded in the plane earth, is thought to idealize a large valley. The radiative transfer equations were set up in such a manner as to deal with the special geometry involved. It was found that radiative temperature changes within the valley are a strong function of the steepness of the valley walls.