Application of a non-coaxial soil model in shallow foundations

The influence of a non-coaxial model for granular soils on shallow foundation analyses is investigated. The non-coaxial plasticity theory proposed by Rudnicki and Rice (J. Mech. Phys. Solids 1975, 23, 371–394) is integrated into a Drucker–Prager model with both perfect plasticity and strain hardening. This non-coaxial model is numerically implemented into the finite-element program ABAQUS using a substepping scheme with automatic error control. The influence of the non-coaxial model on footing settlement and bearing capacity is investigated under various loading and boundary conditions. Compared with the predictions using conventional coaxial models, the non-coaxial prediction results indicate that the settlement of a footing increases significantly when the non-coaxial component of plastic strain rate is taken into consideration, although ultimate footing bearing capacities are not affected significantly. The non-coaxial model has a different effect on footing settlements under different loading and boundary conditions. In general, the discrepancies between coaxial and non-coaxial predictions increase with increasing rotation of principal stresses of the soil mass beneath a footing. It can be concluded that if the non-coaxial component of plastic strain rate is neglected in shallow foundation problems using the finite-element method, the results tend to be non-conservative when designs are dominated by settlement of footings.     

Reliability of shallow foundations designed against bearing failure using LRFD

Worldwide, there is growing interest in the development of a rational reliability-based geotechnical design code. The reasons for this interest are at least two-fold; first, geotechnical engineers face significantly more uncertainties than those faced in other fields of engineering, therefore there is a need to properly characterize and deal with these uncertainties. Second, for decades, structural engineers have used a reliability-based design code, and there is a need to develop the same for geotechnical engineers, in order that the two groups can ‘speak the same language’. This paper develops a theoretical model to predict the probability that a shallow foundation will exceed its supporting soil's bearing capacity. The footing is designed using characteristic soil properties (cohesion and friction angle) derived from a single sample, or ‘core’, taken in the vicinity of the footing, and used in a load and resistance factor design approach. The theory predicting failure probability is validated using a two-dimensional random finite element method analysis of a strip footing. Agreement between theory and simulation is found to be very good. Therefore, the theory can be used with confidence to perform risk assessments of foundation designs and develop resistance factors for use in code provisions.     

Undrained capacity of surface foundations with zero-tension interface under planar V-H-M loading

Undrained capacity of strip and circular surface foundations with a zero-tension interface on a deposit with varying degrees of strength heterogeneity is investigated by finite element analyses. The method for simulating the zero-tension interface numerically is validated. Failure envelopes for strip and circular surface foundations under undrained planar V-H-M loading are presented and compared with predictions from traditional bearing capacity theory. Similar capacity is predicted with both methods in V-H and V-M loading space while the traditional bearing capacity approach under-estimates the V-H-M capacity derived from the numerical analyses due to superposition of solutions for load inclination and eccentricity not adequately capturing the true soil response. An approximating expression is proposed to describe the shape of normalised V-H-M failure envelopes for strip and circular foundations with a zero-tension interface. The unifying expression enables implementation in an automated calculation tool resulting in essentially instantaneous generation of combined loading failure envelopes and optimisation of a foundation design as a function of foundation size or material factor. In contrast, the traditional bearing capacity theory approach or direct numerical analyses for a given scenario requires ad-hoc analyses covering a range of input variables in order to obtain the ‘best’ design.     

Drained bearing response of shallow foundations on structured soils

This paper examines the drained bearing response of circular footings resting on structured soil deposits. Numerical simulations have been carried out using a finite element formulation of the Structured Cam Clay model. A parametric study was conducted by varying the parameters that govern the behaviour of structured soils and guidelines are given for designers to identify when effects of the soil structure are important. Under fully drained conditions, deformation within the structured soil supporting the footing usually occurs as a local or punching shear failure due to high compressibility of the structured soil and the mobilised bearing pressure increases with the footing movement, without reaching an ultimate value. A novel approximate method is presented to obtain the load–displacement response of a rigid circular footing resting on the surface of a structured soil deposit. This requires the properties of the soil in the reconstituted state and two additional parameters, which govern the natural structure of the soil. The proposed method has been applied to a published case study, where plate load test results are given for rigid circular steel plates resting on structured soil deposits. Fair agreement is observed between the computed and experimental results, suggesting the approximate method may be useful in design studies of foundations on structured soil deposits.     

Progressive failure analysis of shallow foundations on soils with strain-softening behaviour

This paper presents a finite element approach to analyse the response of shallow foundations on soils with strain-softening behaviour. In these soils, a progressive failure can occur owing to a reduction of strength with increasing the plastic strains induced by loading. The present approach allows this failure process to be properly simulated by using a non-local elasto-viscoplastic constitutive model in conjunction with a Mohr–Coulomb yield function in which the shear strength parameters are reduced with the accumulated deviatoric plastic strain. Another significant advantage of the method is that it requires few material parameters as input data, with most of these parameters that can be readily obtained from conventional geotechnical tests. To assess the reliability of the proposed approach, some comparisons with experimental results from physical model tests are shown. A fairly good agreement is found between simulated and observed results. Finally, the progressive failure process that occurs in a dense sand layer owing to loading is analysed in details, and the main aspects concerning the associated failure mechanism are highlighted.     

Design of shallow foundations under tensile loading for transmission line towers: An overview

Tensioned foundations are common in civil engineering applications such as transmission towers, harbors, offshore structures, basement slabs under pressure, industrial equipment, etc. Procedures for the design of tensioned foundations are discussed in this paper, including specific recommendations for more common transmission tower foundations. Starting from a distinction between shallow and deep modes of failure, the paper presents the most common failure mechanisms for shallow failure in tension, including procedures for calculation of foundation tensile capacity under vertical and inclined loading. Emphasis is given to the influence of the strength of the compacted backfill compared to the strength of the natural soil, including presentation of results of full-scale loading tests.     

Estimating liquefaction-induced settlement of shallow foundations by numerical approach

Occurrence of liquefaction in saturated sand deposits underlying foundation of structure can cause a wide range of structural damages starting from minor settlement, and ending to general failure due to loss of bearing capacity. If the bearing capacity failure is not the problem, reliable estimation of the liquefaction-induced settlement will be of prime importance in assessment of the overall performance of the structure. Currently, there are few procedures with limited application in practice for estimation of settlement of foundations on liquefied ground. Therefore, development of a general relationship is important from the practical viewpoint. In this paper, the dynamic response of shallow foundations on liquefied soils is studied using a 3D fully coupled dynamic analysis. For verification of the numerical model, simulation of a centrifuge experiment is carried out and the analysis results are compared with the experimental measurements. The results of centrifuge experiment are taken from the literature for the purpose of comparison and the experiment has not been performed by the authors. After verification of the numerical model, a practical relationship for estimation of liquefaction-induced settlement of rigid footings on homogeneous loose to medium fine sand is proposed based on the results of a comprehensive parametric study. In the interpretation process, the soil layer thickness in which the liquefaction takes place is found to be a key parameter, since by normalization with respect to this parameter, effects of a number of other parameters can be eliminated.     

Support vector machine applied to settlement of shallow foundations on cohesionless soils

The determination of settlement of shallow foundations on cohesionless soil is an important task in geotechnical engineering. Available methods for the determination of settlement are not reliable. In this study, the support vector machine (SVM), a novel type of learning algorithm based on statistical theory, has been used to predict the settlement of shallow foundations on cohesionless soil. SVM uses a regression technique by introducing an ε – insensitive loss function. A thorough sensitive analysis has been made to ascertain which parameters are having maximum influence on settlement. The study shows that SVM has the potential to be a useful and practical tool for prediction of settlement of shallow foundation on cohesionless soil.     

Experimental and numerical study of soil-reinforcement effects on the low-strain stiffness and bearing capacity of shallow foundations

This paper presents results of meticulous laboratory testing and numerical simulations on the effect of reinforcement on the low-strain stiffness and bearing capacity of shallow foundations on dry sand. The effect of the location and the number of reinforcement layers is studied in the laboratory, whereas numerical simulations are used to study the reinforcement-foundation interaction. Laboratory tests show an increase of 100, 200, and 275% not only in bearing capacity but also in low-strain stiffness (linear load–displacement behaviour) of a square foundation when one, two, and three layers of reinforcement are used, respectively. The specimen preparation technique is found to be crucial for the repeatability and reliability of the laboratory results (less than 5% variability). Numerical simulations demonstrate that if reinforcements are placed up to a depth of one footing width (B) below the foundation, better re-distribution of the load to deeper layers is achieved, thus reducing the stresses and strains underneath the foundation. Numerical simulations and experimental results clearly identify a critical zone between 0.3 and 0.5B, where maximum benefits not only on the bearing capacity but also on the low-strain stiffness of the foundation are obtained. Therefore, soil reinforcement can also be used to reduce low-strain vibrations of foundations.     

Undrained capacity of a surface circular foundation under fully three-dimensional loading

Circular foundations are widely employed in offshore engineering to support facilities and are generally subjected to fully three-dimensional loading due to the harsh offshore environmental load and complex operational loads. The undrained capacity of surface circular foundations on soil with varying strength profiles and under fully three-dimensional loading is investigated and presented in the form of failure envelopes that obtained from finite element analyses. The combined ultimate limit state of circular foundations is defined as the two-dimensional failure envelopes in resultant H-M loading space accounting for the vertical load and torsion mobilisation. The effects of vertical load and torsion mobilisation, soil shear strength heterogeneity and loading angle from moment to horizontal load on the shape of normalised H-M failure envelopes are explored. A series of expressions are proposed to describe the shape of failure envelopes obtained numerically, enabling essentially instantaneous generation of failure envelopes and optimisation of a circular foundation design based on constraint of any input variable through implementation in an automated calculation tool. An example application is ultimately provided to illustrate how the proposed expressions may be used in practice.     

A numerical model for the transient analysis of offshore foundations under cyclic loading

A comprehensive numerical model for the analysis of offshore foundations under a general transient loading is presented here. The theoretical basis of the model lies on the Swansea formulation of Biot’s equations of dynamic poroelasticity combined with a constitutive model that reproduces key aspects of cyclic soil behaviour in the frame of the theory of generalised plasticity. On the practical side, the adoption of appropriate finite element formulations may prevent the appearance of spurious numerical instabilities of the pore pressure field. In this respect, the use of a coupled enhanced-strain element is here proposed. On the other hand, the practicality of the presented model depends ultimately on its computational efficiency. Some practical recommendations concerning the solution strategies, the matrix storage/handling procedures and the parallel multi-processor computation are here provided. Finally, the performance of the model with a benchmark study case and its practical application to analyse the soil–structure interaction of an offshore monopile under a realistic transient storm loading are discussed.     

浅基础竖向极限承载力的可靠度分析

结合各种地基土的原始载荷板试验资料,用太沙基理论公式、汉森理论公式和魏西克理论公式进行了浅基础极限承载力的计算,对计算模式的不确定性、土性固有的变异性及由其引起的极限承载力的不确定性等进行了研究;根据以上计算结果,计算了各类地基土承载力的可行度指标;结合上部结构的荷载标准及分项系数,计算了各类地基土承载力的分项系数。     

吸力式沉箱基础极限拉拔承载力的数值分析

作为新型的深水海洋基础型式,吸力式沉箱基础被广泛地用于系泊深水海洋设施中,从而承受巨大的倾斜上拔荷载。在上拔荷载水平分量与竖向分量的共同作用下,吸力式沉箱的承载特性及其工作性能评价是海洋工程设计与建设中的关键技术问题之一。然而现有的理论分析与试验研究并不能满足工程实践的需要,因此,对吸力式沉箱基础的极限承载力分析建立了有限元数值计算方法。当沉箱基础在快速拔出过程中,正常固结黏土处于完全不排水状态,沉箱基础发生整体破坏时表现出反向地基承载力失稳模式,此时沉箱基础所发挥的极限承载能力往往最大。为此,在数值计算中直接假定沉箱基础及其周围土体处于完全不排水状态,针对不同的沉箱长径比,分别确定了在竖向上拔荷载和水平拉拔的单独作用下沉箱基础极限承载力。对比发现：竖向上拔极限承载力有限元解能够较好地与理论计算结果相符合,而水平极限承载力解与理论计算结果存在一定的差异。     

柔性和刚性浅基础的地基承载能力分析

为了研究刚性和柔性加载面下地基的破坏机制和极限承载力,着重对比分析了不考虑土体自重条件下柔性基础、基底完全光滑或完全粗糙的刚性基础的地基,采用关联流动的Mohr-Coulomb内切圆屈服准则,通过增量加载的有限元方法,全程模拟了地基由初始的线弹性状态逐渐过渡到塑性流动的极限破坏状态的过程。通过对这3种基础类型下地基的计算结果的对比分析,并结合国内外模型试验成果,得到如下结论：柔性和刚性浅基础地基在不考虑土体自重的条件下有相近的地基极限承载力,但基底水平面上竖向应力和位移的发展规律、临塑荷载及滑动面有着明显的区别。     

A macroelement formulation for shallow foundations on cohesive and frictional soils

The scope of this paper is to present a macroelement model for shallow foundations encompassing the majority of combinations of soil and foundation–soil interface conditions that are interesting for practical applications. The basic idea of the formulation is to raise the common assumption that the surface of ultimate loads of the foundation is identified as a yield surface in the space of force parameters which the footing is subjected to. Instead, each non‐linear mechanism participating in the global response of the system is modelled independently and the surface of ultimate loads is retrieved as the combined result of all active mechanisms. This allows formulating each mechanism by respecting its particular characteristics and offers the possibility of activating, modifying or deactivating each mechanism according to the context of application. The model comprises three non‐linear mechanisms: (a) the mechanism of sliding at the soil–footing interface, (b) the mechanism of soil yielding in the vicinity of the footing and (c) the mechanism of uplift as the footing may get detached from the soil. The first two are irreversible and dissipative and are combined within a multi‐mechanism plasticity formulation. The third mechanism is reversible and non‐dissipative. It is reproduced with a phenomenological non‐linear hyperelastic model. The model is validated with respect to the existing results for shallow foundations under quasi‐static loading tests. It is shown that although the ultimate surface of the foundation is not explicitly used in the formulation of the model, the obtained force states by the model are always contained within it. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

静压钢管注浆微型桩抗压与抗拔对比试验研究

通过现场桩基承载力试验,对静压钢管注浆微型桩抗压与抗拔性能进行了对比分析。基于实测Q-s曲线,研究压力注浆工艺及注浆体积比对微型桩抗压极限承载力、抗拔极限承载力以及极限侧阻力的影响,分析注浆微型桩的桩土作用机理,对微型桩抗拔极限状态进行讨论,建议微型桩设计抗拔系数 极限抗拔位移。研究结果表明,软土地基中静压钢管注浆微型桩较未注浆钢管微型桩,桩基极限承载力提高显著,桩基抗拔性能良好。     

Interference effect of two closely-spaced shallow strip foundations on geogrid-reinforced sand

Summary Geotextiles and geogrids are now being used extensively in many civil engineering construction works. This study presents some laboratory model test results for the ultimate bearing capacity of an isolated, and two closely-spaced, strip foundations resting on unreinforced sand, and sand reinforced with layers of geogrid. Based on the model test results, the variation of the group efficiency with the centre-to-centre spacing of the foundation has been determined.     

Three-dimensional numerical analysis of the keying of vertically installed plate anchors in clay

Plate anchors, such as suction embedded plate anchors and vertically driven plate anchors, offer economically attractive anchoring solutions for deep/ultra-deep water offshore developments. The rotation/keying processes of plate anchors will cause embedment losses, which lead to decreases of the uplift resistances of the anchors in normally consolidated soil. In the present paper, the keying processes of vertically installed strip and square plate anchors are simulated using the 3-D large deformation finite element method. The effects of loading eccentricity and pullout angle on the embedment loss during keying are investigated. Both the development of the uplift resistance and the soil flow mechanisms are presented. The numerical results show that the loading eccentricity e/B has a much larger effect on the embedment loss than the pullout angle does. The anchor shape has a minimal effect on the loss in anchor embedment. The shape factors (square/strip) are 1.05–1.09 for loss of embedment and 1.10–1.19 for capacity.     

矩形浅基础地基极限承载力的理论解

对于非条形浅基础的承载力的求解,目前国内外学者均采用分步单独考虑地基自重影响的求解方法。为求解矩形浅基础地基极限承载力的理论解,首先假定三维地基滑动面,同时考虑黏聚力、超载和土的自重的耦合影响作用,然后在均布荷载作用下根据极限平衡理论,由塑性体的静力平衡条件得到地基承载力计算公式,最后对影响结果的各参数进行了讨论,得出一些有益的结论;通过算例将文中计算公式与几个典型公式计算结果进行了对比分析。验证了文中公式的实用性。     

Application of thermodynamics to the global modelling of shallow foundations on frictional material

Soil–shallow foundation interaction has been theoretically analysed within the framework of thermomechanics. The design of a global interaction model has been achieved with an original treatment of the Clausius–Duhem inequality. The role of the gravity volume forces is emphasized. The paper is focused on a strip footing based on dense sand and subjected to time‐independent plastic processes. The theoretical approach has confirmed that an associated global flow rule cannot be expected to hold true. The analysis of the sources of dissipation has led to the development of a soil–footing interface model and a complete interaction model accounting for the interface constraints and the intrinsic frictional properties of the soil. Finally, the abilities of the complete model are checked by comparisons with experimental results found in the literature. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.