Hyper Redundancy for Accuracy Enhancement in Automated Close Range Photogrammetry

A generic network design in close range photogrammetry is one where optimal multi-ray intersection geometry is obtained with as few camera stations as practicable. Hyper redundancy is a concept whereby, once the generic network is in place, many additional images are recorded, with the beneficial impact upon object point precision being equivalent to the presence of multiple exposures at each camera position within the generic network. The effective number of images per station within a hyper redundant network might well be in the range of 10 to 20 or more. As is apparent when it is considered that a hyper redundant network may comprise hundreds of images, the concept is only applicable in practice to fully automatic vision metrology systems, where it proves to be a very effective means of enhancing measurement accuracy at the cost of minimal additional work in the image recording phase. This paper briefly reviews the network design and accuracy aspects of hyper redundancy and illustrates the technique by way of the photogrammetric measurement of surface deformation of a radio telescope of 26 m diameter. This project required an object point measurement accuracy of σ  = 0·065 mm, or 1/400 000 of the diameter of the reflector.     

RECIPROCAL OBSERVATIONS IN PHOTOGRAMMETRY

The paper discusses a method of photogrammetric control for engineering problems which relies on reciprocal observations between instruments. Since photogrammetric networks do not usually permit cameras to point at one another, it is proposed that at least one additional theodolite station be used to establish these observations. This results in directly measured space triangles; in a sense the photogrammetric task becomes a surveying problem. Potential advantages are a more efficient use of mixed photogrammetric and survey measurements, a stronger network geometry and a direct solution for the orientation parameters of the instruments. Special attention must be given to targeting the camera and theodolite stations.     

Conceptual Model Of The Convergent Multistation Network Configuration Task

Despite the potential of close range photogrammetry for high accuracy measurement, it has rarely been used by other than experienced photogrammetrists. One major contributing factor is the expertise needed to design multistation sensor configurations. This paper presents a conceptual model for the most fundamental task in this design problem, configuring a first approximation to a strong imaging geometry. This task entails making decisions on the number of camera stations needed and where they should be placed (positioned and oriented). The conceptual model is based on the theory of generic networks. A generic network constitutes compiled expertise, describing an ideal configuration of camera stations that can be employed to provide a strong imaging geometry for a class of network design problems. In addition to improving our understanding of cognition in network design, this model performs an important role in the development of an expert system for automated network design for dimensional inspection tasks.     

A robust linear least-squares estimation of camera exterior orientation using multiple geometric features

For photogrammetric applications, solutions to camera exterior orientation problem can be classified into linear (direct) and non-linear. Direct solutions are important because of their computational efficiency. Existing linear solutions suffer from lack of robustness and accuracy partially due to the fact that the majority of the methods utilize only one type of geometric entity and their frameworks do not allow simultaneous use of different types of features. Furthermore, the orthonormality constraints are weakly enforced or not enforced at all. We have developed a new analytic linear least-squares framework for determining camera exterior orientation from the simultaneous use of multiple types of geometric features. The technique utilizes 2D/3D correspondences between points, lines, and ellipse–circle pairs. The redundancy provided by different geometric features improves the robustness and accuracy of the least-squares solution. A novel way of approximately imposing orthonormality constraints on the sought rotation matrix within the linear framework is presented. Results from experimental evaluation of the new technique using both synthetic data and real images reveal its improved robustness and accuracy over existing direct methods.     

Precise estimation of residual tropospheric delays using a regional GPS network for real-time kinematic applications

 A new method called Trop_NetAdjust is described to predict in real time the residual tropospheric delays on the GPS carrier phase observables using the redundant measurements from a network of GPS reference stations. This method can not only enhance the effectiveness and reliability of real-time kinematic users within the network, but also provide a valid approach to tropospheric parameter variation forecasting. Trop_NetAdjust is theoretically based upon LS prediction criteria and enables the prediction of residual tropospheric delays remaining after a standard model has been applied to the raw GPS measurements. Two cases are analyzed, namely a first case when the delay is required for an existing satellite at a new point within the network and a second case when the delay is required for a new satellite. Field tests were conducted using data collected in a network of 11 reference stations covering a 400×600 km region in southern Norway. The results were analyzed in the measurement domain (ionospheric-free double-difference residuals) and showed improvements of 20 to 65% RMS errors using Trop_NetAdjust. The estimates of the Trop_NetAdjust prediction accuracy were also obtained using the covariance analysis method. The agreement was consistently better than 30% when compared with data from a real network. Received: 28 February 2000 / Accepted: 9 January 2001     

Feasibility of employing a smartphone as the payload in a photogrammetric UAV system

Smartphones can be operated in a 3G network environment at any time or location, and they also cost less than existing photogrammetric UAV systems, providing high-resolution images and 3D location and attitude data from a variety of built-in sensors. This study aims to assess the feasibility of using a smartphone as the payload for a photogrammetric UAV system. To carry out the assessment, a smartphone-based photogrammetric UAV system was developed and utilized to obtain image, location, and attitude data under both static and dynamic conditions. The accuracy of the location and attitude data obtained and sent by this system was then evaluated. The smartphone images were converted into ortho-images via image triangulation, which was carried out both with and without consideration of the interior orientation (IO) parameters determined by camera calibration. In the static experiment, when the IO parameters were taken into account, the triangulation results were less than 1.28 pixels (RMSE) for all smartphone types, an improvement of at least 47% compared with the case when IO parameters were not taken into account. In the dynamic experiment, on the other hand, the accuracy of smartphone image triangulation was not significantly improved by considering IO parameters. This was because the electronic rolling shutter within the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensor built into the smartphone and the actuator for the voice coil motor (VCM)-type auto-focusing affected by the vibration and the speed of the UAV, which is likely to have a negative effect on image-based digital elevation model (DEM) generation. However, considering that these results were obtained using a single smartphone, this suggests that a smartphone is not only feasible as the payload for a photogrammetric UAV system but it may also play a useful role when installed in existing UAV systems.     

The Role of a Digital Intelligent Camera in Automating Industrial Photogrammetry

In the past few years the automation of digital industrial photogrammetric systems has increased dramatically. Due to digital image processing software, coded targets and automatic matching methods, a huge number of photogrammetric measurement tasks can be fully automated. In many cases a "one button click" is enough to provide the three dimensional co-ordinates of measured points without any manual interaction, immediately after acquiring the images. The technology of intelligent cameras is a logical step towards automated photogrammetric measurements. An intelligent camera, which has an integrated computer, analyses the image immediately after it is taken. This technology provides not only a much shorter processing time for the images but also more control over the measurement process just when it is needed, during image acquisition. This takes place in the form of real time feedback.
This paper describes the role of a digital intelligent camera in the automation of an industrial photogrammetric measurement system and gives an overview of existing automation techniques in industrial photogrammetry. As an example of an intelligent camera, the performance of the new INCA digital intelligent camera, developed and manufactured by Geodetic Services, Inc. (GSI) and distributed by Leica, is described.     

大气可降水量预测模型的自适应Kalmam滤波改进

针对现有可降水量预报模型存在预报精度不高等问题,该文提出采用方差分量估计自适应卡尔曼滤波对可降水量数据进行预处理,用以提高径向基神经网络预测模型的预测精度,从而形成高精度预报模型。通过比较不同基站不同时间的数据,分析使用方法的预报精度。实验结果表明:将预测模型应用于全国7个测站进行实验,预测相对精度的平均值可达95%以上,预报残差在10-5左右,残差值小于0.001的占90%以上。在影响因素方面,使用较短时间作为模型原始数据进行预测会得到较好的预测结果。实验证明本预测方法在预报大气可降水量值方面具有较高的精度。     

非量测型相机检校及可靠性研究

随着大面阵CCD技术以及数码相机的出现、应用和发展,数码相机开始应用于摄影测量生产,但是数码相机镜头畸变差很大,内方位元素无法直接量取,属于非量测型相机,这就使得数码相机无法直接在摄影测量中使用。文章通过对数码相机的检校和精度分析,说明了数码相机通过检校具有较高精度,并通过具体实践,证明了经检校的数码相机用于摄影测量是可行的。     

A hybrid measurement approach for close-range photogrammetry

Full automation in close-range photogrammetric measurement has long been a practical reality. However, constraints apply to the process such that automated 3D measurement is generally confined to targeted points in an environment of controlled illumination. The ready availability of consumer-grade digital cameras has made photogrammetric measurement accessible and more widely employed for a host of new applications, the majority of which call for 3D measurement of other than signalized object features. Process automation is therefore typically precluded. This paper discusses a hybrid measurement approach which involves fully automatic network orientation with targets, while at the same time supporting follow-up semi-automatic and manual operations such as feature point and line extraction and surface measurement via image matching. The topics discussed include camera calibration, the metric exploitation of colour attributes, issues related to image point correspondence determination, operator assisted feature measurement and surface extraction. All are important to the practical realisation of the hybrid measurement approach.     

基于Keras平台的LSTM模型的对流层延迟预测

对流层延迟是影响全球卫星导航系统（GNSS）测量精度的重要因素. 针对现有对流层延迟模型稳定性差,精度较低等问题,在无实测气象参数条件下,提出一种基于Keras平台的长短期记忆神经网络（LSTM）的对流层延迟预测模型. 选取全球均匀分布的8个测站,使用其2016年第90-131年积日共42 天的整点对流层延迟数据预测其第132-136年积日的整点数据. 以国际GNSS服务（IGS）中心提供的对流层产品为真值,分析比较LSTM模型和反向传播（BP）神经网络模型的预测效果. 研究表明,LSTM模型预测结果的均方根误差基本达到mm级,其平均绝对误差和平均绝对百分比误差均比BP模型低,LSTM模型在精度和稳定性上较BP模型均有明显提高;LSTM模型在中高纬区域的均方根误差（RMSE）均值达到7.82 mm,中高纬地区更适合使用该模型.      

基于几何约束和目标检测的室内动态SLAM

针对即时定位与地图构建(SLAM)在室内动态环境下定位精度低和地图效果差的问题,提出一种基于几何约束和目标检测的室内动态SLAM方法. 使用目标检测网络获取语义信息,提出运动物体漏检的方法;根据先验知识,提出准确识别动态区域的信息判定方法;结合几何约束和深度学习方法剔除动态点,利用静态点估计相机位姿;根据存储信息构建可闭环的静态地图. 在TUM数据集上进行实验,定位精度比ORB-SLAM2提高97.5%,相较于其他动态SLAM可取得更好的性能. 在室内真实环境进行实验,构建的静态地图更准确,有效提高了室内动态SLAM的定位精度和地图效果.      

利用结构自适应极端学习机预报导航卫星钟差

针对卫星钟差难以用精确模型来进行预报的问题,将极端学习机（extreme learning machine,ELM）神经网络用于导航卫星钟差预报。针对ELM网络隐层结构难以确定的问题,提出了基于自适应共振理论（adaptive resonance theory,ART）网络思想的ELM网络结构设计算法。该算法将ART网络的聚类特性用于ELM网络结构设计中,通过对输入向量与已存模式的相似度比较将输入向量进行分类,自适应地确定隐层节点规模。使用GPS卫星钟差数据进行30 d的预报实验,结果表明,此方法的钟差预报精度明显优于二次多项式模型和灰色系统模型。     

High-accuracy photogrammetric technique for human spine measurement

Close range photogrammetry has been recognised as an essential tool for the capture of high-accuracy spatial data for medical applications, in particular work involving dynamic human body parts such as limbs. Offline and online photogrammetric systems are readily available for a number of common applications. However, off-the-shelf systems are not always appropriate because of project site conditions. To achieve high measurement accuracy in a field environment, a modified field camera calibration technique was introduced. The technique is particularly important where each camera is limited to one captured image during calibration, as the camera and the calibration testfield are in fixed positions. In this paper a custom-built imaging system designed for the study of the human spine in an outdoor environment is introduced. The discussion addresses: (1) imaging system design; (2) modified field calibration techniques; and (3) a case study on human spines. Two field camera calibration techniques were evaluated, both of which improved the accuracy of the prototype system, the use of a detachable target board offering the best results. This modified camera calibration procedure has improved the 3D measurement accuracy from 1·25 ± 0·3 mm to 0·43 ± 0·1 mm. The improvement is at a level achievable in the laboratory. The technique is considered to provide accurate and reliable anthropometric landmark measurement at low cost. This was evaluated in a clinical setting where diurnal changes in spine length and contour were measured in a cohort of 30 university students. The capability of the technique to measure sagittal and frontal angular changes provides a novel way of examining changes in spine shape.     

基于DSM阴影仿真和高度场光线跟踪的影像阴影检测

介绍了一个建筑物阴影检测的模型。首先利用摄影测量学原理来计算阴影坐标。即用数字表面模型(digitalsurfacemodel,缩写为DSM)和太阳高度和方位来计算建筑物阴影的空间坐标,并由相机模型计算出每个阴影单元对应的扫描行和相机空间坐标。由高度场光线跟踪判断阴影的可见性,对可见阴影计算出它在投影图像上的坐标。然后在这个结果的基础上再对图像进行阴影的细分割。     

Practical Influences of Geometric and Radiometric Image Quality Provided By Different Digital Camera Systems

Imaging systems founded on current digital camera technology are finding widespread use in high precision measurement applications. A single digital CCD camera, or an array of such cameras, equipped with ring lighting equipment is commonly used to acquire imagery of high contrast retroreflective targets placed on the object at discrete locations to signalize points of interest. The precise and accurate measurement of each imaged target location is a fundamental requirement if suitable measurement tolerances are to be obtained. Whilst such systems are undoubtedly capable of producing excellent results, the practical effects of target image quality on the photogrammetric measurement process is in need of careful consideration. This paper revisits some fundamentals of the optical imaging of retrotargets and investigates some abilities of a range of digital camera systems to provide images of retrotargets that are appropriate to the measurement process. Some experimental results are presented including the imaging of planar arrays of differing sized retrotargets at differing angles and exposures and a series of network analyses in which the level of target image intensity has been varied systematically.     

Direct creation of construction drawings for Kwan-yin Statue by close-range photogrammetry

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Direct creation of construction drawings for Kwan-yin Statue by close-range photogrammetry

In order to provide the model point accuracy of ±2 mm, an extra high accuracy industrial control net with four surveying piers with accuracy ±0.1 mm was set up around the model. Tens of orientation marks have been placed on the different parts and measured with accuracy ±0.2 mm from the above-mentioned piers. The main four stereopairs taken with the P31 camera around the model are simultaneously processed on the BC2 analytical plotter. The accuracy of absolute orientation is better than ±0.9 mm. Finally, about 300 sections construction drawings have been directly offered, and the closerange photogrammetric data has been used for the design and construction of the statue.     

相机三维检校场的精密测量与稳定性分析

为满足摄影测量中相机检校的需要,选用一种室内相机检校场的精密测量方法与实验分析方法,对相机检校场进行检校。根据山东科技大学室内三维检校场中标志点的排列规则,点数众多的实际分布特点,选用高精度的经纬仪测量系统,选取最佳的仪器和基准尺摆放位置对检校场内的标志点进行测量。利用统计检验的方法对标志点点位的稳定性进行分析,判断出标志点稳定可以满足相机检校的需要。     

Geometric assessment of the kodak DCS Pro back

This paper reports on an investigation into the suitability of the Kodak DCS Pro Back for use in close range photogrammetric measurement. The camera back, being used in conjunction with a medium-format non-metric camera, has been assessed with a view to using it for low- to medium-order photogrammetric work in architectural recording. Examinations centred upon the stability of the camera back with respect to the camera body and the effects of the removable infrared filter that is present immediately above the camera's focal plane. Ultimately the camera combination was deemed suitable for application in recording of this kind and is now in active use by the Metric Survey Team at English Heritage.