Propagation of brittle failure triggered by magma in Iceland

The architectures of normal faults at a divergent plate boundary in Iceland are examined by combining surface fault observations with cross-sectional studies at different structural levels to constrain a model of failure propagation. The structures of Holocene faults defining graben are analyzed to characterize the upper-most parts of ruptures. The shapes of faults resulting from growth and interaction of separate segments are used to better understand failure propagation inferred to occur in the intervening stages of displacement accumulation and lateral propagation. Pleistocene faults in volcanic sequences exhumed from 800 to 1000 m are analyzed to characterize deeper portions of failure that occurred beneath the central rift zone. Tertiary dikes exhumed from depths of 1300–1500 m are studied to infer how magma controls the failure initiation. Field studies in combination with a literature review indicate that the planar ruptures are likely to initiate at depth as magma-filled vertical fractures and lengthen upward and laterally. As failures propagate to higher crustal levels, they are likely to change into inclined normal faults. At near-surface levels, faults link with cooling joints and dilational fractures propagating downward from the surface. It is suggested that the inferred stages of fault propagation are characteristic for normal faults developed at spreading ridges.     

Rift-zone development around a plume-related magma centre on the Isle of Skye (Scotland): a model for stress inversions

ABSTRACT Using the example of the Isle of Skye in Scotland, we investigate the influence of pressure variations in upper-crustal magma reservoirs on the development of rift-type normal faulting around central volcanoes. The regional synmagmatic stress regime is of strike-slip type in Scotland during the Lower Tertiary. During a prolonged period of overall high pressure in the Skye magma reservoir (gabbro intrusion stage), crustal extension results from the injection of basaltic dykes parallel to the trend of the far-field maximum stress. During a subsequent period of pressure decrease in the reservoir (granites intrusion stage) normal faults trending parallel to the dykes are initiated. These faults tilt the upper-crustal blocks along with the former dyke swarm and associated lava pile. Finite-element modelling shows that a decrease of magma pressure in a circular cavity may lead, as in Skye, to a change from a regional strike-slip to a local rift-type normal stress regime.     

Residual gravity variations in volcanic areas: Constraints to the interpretation of uplift episodes at Campi Flegrei,Italy

An elastically homogeneous, compressible half space model with vertical density stratification is employed to compute the displacement field and the gravity variations produced by the inflation of a spherically symmetric deformation source. Contributions to gravity variations are produced by (1) the displacements of the free surface and of subsurface layers, (2) dilation/contraction of the medium, (3) the displacement of source boundaries and, possibly, by (4) new mass input from remote distances into the source volume. Two extreme cases were examined in detail, in which the magma chamber is identified as the deformation source: in the first model the volume and pressure increase is due to input of magma with the same density of the magma already resident in the magma chamber (deformation source with constant density), in the second model it is due to magma differentiation (deformation source with constant mass). In recent years (1970–72 and 1982–84) two inflation episodes took place in the Campi Flegrei caldera (Italy), characterized by significant ground uplift and strongly correlated gravity variations. From the comparison between measured and computed gravity residuals (free-air-corrected gravity variations) we can assess that an inflation source with constant density would predict gravity residuals consistent with those measured during the phase of uplift (within experimental errors), while an expansion at constant mass would predict gravity residuals much lower than observed. However, during the subsidence phase, which followed after the maximum uplift in 1984, gravity residuals at most sites were completely different from those measured during the uplift phase, suggesting that more mass left the system during deflation than entered during inflation. An alternative model is then proposed, in which the deformation source is ascribed to fluid pressure increase within a geothermal system, close to the critical point, shallower than the magma chamber.     

Reexamining the Seismological Implications of the Present-day Stress State of the Yingxiu-Beichuan Fault after the Wenchuan Earthquake

The present-day stress state of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault after the Wenchuan earthquake was re-estimated using measured in-situ stress data obtained after the Wenchuan earthquake. The results reveal that the gradient coefficients of principal stresses versus depth decrease from south to north along the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault, revealing that the stress level decreases from south to north. The consistency between the present-day stress levels and surface ruptures generated during the earthquake indicates that the accumulated tectonic stress beneath the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault before the Wenchuan earthquake was relieved in form of surface ruptures. This resulted in the stress remaining high in the southern section of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault but relatively low in the northern section. Abnormal high pore pressure conditions and an extremely low frictional coefficient play important role in the interpretation of the stress field adjustment and seismic events observed after the Wenchuan earthquake along this fault, according to the estimation results using the Coulomb frictional-failure theory incorporating frictional coefficients ranging from 0.4 to 1.0. To accurately estimate the seismological hazard of the Yingxiu-Beichuan fault by analyzing fault instability using the Coulomb frictional-failure theory, much attention should be focused on the pore pressure conditions and the evolution state of the frictional coefficient under the present-day stress state.     

The mechanics of a magma chamber-fault system in trans-tension with application to Coso

The mechanical interaction between an elliptically shaped magma chamber and a fault subject to transtension is investigated with particular reference to the Coso geothermal field. The geologic setting of the Coso field is interpreted as a releasing bend step-over structure formed by the Airport Lake and Owens Valley dextral strike-slip fault system. The role of the Coso volcano-magmatic center in the development of the “over-step” structure is examined by treating the magma chamber as a liquid inclusion in a viscoelastic crust containing a fault (Airport Lake). The problem is numerically solved using a 2D viscoelastic finite element model with thermally activated viscosity to account for thermal weakening of the rock. The temperature distribution around the magma body is calculated based on a 3D steady-state approach and using the mesh-less numerical method. The fault is modeled as a frictionless contact. The simulated distributions of stress and strain around the inclusion display a rotation caused by the shearing component of the applied transtension. The results indicate that the fault tends to overstep the chamber in a geometric pattern similar to a step-over. There is good correspondence between the computed distributions of the maximum shear stress in the vicinity of the magma chamber and the map of earthquake epicenters at a depth of 7–10 km in Coso.     

Interaction between seismic and volcanic deformation: a possible interpretation of ground deformation observed at Vulcano Island (1976–84)

Levelling measurements carried by Osservatorio Vesuviano over Vulcano Island (North Sicily) since June 1976 show a complex history of small but significant vertical movements which took place after the ‘Patti earthquake’ of 15/4/1978. Three phases can be identified in the time history of ground deformation: (I) co-seismic subsidence of the northern part of the Island with respect to the southern part, followed by (II) transient inflation of the central region surrounding ‘La Fossa’ volcano, and finally (III) deflation and subsidence to stationary values greater than phase I. Large variations in temperature and gas content of magmatic origin were also detected in fumaroles along the crater rim of ‘La Fossa’. The coincidence in time of the earthquake with the start of the deformation history, the proximity of the event to Vulcano Island and the favourable mechanism (right lateral) and orientation (NNW) of the fault strike, suggest that the earthquake triggered the observed deformation. Among the plausible models, one seems particularly able to reproduce the amplitude and time evolution of the geodetic data, in a manner consistent with the geochemical observations. According to this model the earthquake, while generating a compressive stress field in the quadrant of Vulcano Island, induced at first a relative coseismic subsidence of the northern part of the island, accompanied by a large increase of the mean stress within a magma chamber at ～ 6.5 km depth. Volatile fluids were then released from the top of the magma chamber and migrated towards the surface following the enhanced pressure gradient. As a result fluid pressure diffusion around the magma chamber induced a local transient uplift of ground that vanished after exhaustion of the overpressure at the source, and finally left a permanent dislocation deformation, possibly amplified by the post-seismic relaxation of the earthquake deviatoric stress. This interpretation is qualitatively consistent with the one suggested by Ferri et al. (1988).     

An alternative emplacement model for the classic Ardnamurchan cone sheet swarm,NW Scotland,involving lateral magma supply via regional dykes

Sub-volcanic intrusive networks, of which cone sheets are recognised as a major constituent, partially control volcano growth and eruption style. The accepted cone sheet model is that these confocally dipping intrusions originate from an unexposed central magma chamber through dip-parallel magma flow. However, the emplacement mechanism of cone sheets remains poorly understood. The ∼58 Ma cone sheet swarm of Ardnamurchan, NW Scotland, offers an excellent opportunity to further resolve the emplacement dynamics of cone sheets, through studying magma flow, and their importance in volcanic edifice construction. Structural measurements and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) analyses have constrained a lateral magma flow pattern, consistently oriented NW–SE, in the majority of the Ardnamurchan cone sheets. Field observations also highlight the importance of host rock structure and interference between competing local and regional stress fields in controlling intrusion geometry. Our observations suggest cone sheet formation may be linked to laterally propagating NW–SE trending regional dykes, sourced from laterally adjacent magmatic systems (likely the Palaeogene Mull Central Complex), which are deflected around the central complex by stress field interference. Implicitly, edifice construction and potential eruption precursors observed at a volcano may instigate, or result from, magmatic activity in laterally adjacent volcanic systems.     

Faulting on the western flank of Mt Etna and magma intrusions in the shallow crust

Surface deformations on the western flank of Mt Etna volcano, spanning 1980–2004, have been analysed as they pertain to stress interactions between magma intrusions within the shallow crust along the S–SE Rift and faulting sensitivity. During this period, an accurate analysis of strain parameters, computed by inversion of SW electro‐optical distance data, suggested that the observed strong displacements on this flank of the edifice can also be related to dextral shear movements along a roughly NE–SW buried fault crossing the area covered by this network, as supported by seismic observations of the 20–24 April 2001 swarm. Moreover, Coulomb stress change model analysis confirms that the displacement along this fault, heralding the July–August 2001 eruption 2 months earlier can be related to major stresses applied by a dike intrusion at depth along the S–SE Rift, as testified by the microseismicity occurring between November 2000 and 19 April 2001.     

Convection and mixing in magma chambers

This paper reviews advances made during the last seven years in the application of fluid dynamics to problems of igneous petrology, with emphasis on the laboratory work with which the authors have been particularly involved. Attention is focused on processes in magma chambers which produce diversity in igneous rocks, such as fractional crystallization, assimilation and magma mixing. Chamber geometry, and variations in the density and viscosity of the magma within it, are shown to play a major role in determining the dynamical behaviour and the composition of the erupted or solidified products.Various convective processes are first reviewed, and in particular the phenomenon of double-diffusive convection. Two types of double-diffusive interfaces between layers of different composition and temperature are likely to occur in magma chambers. A diffusive interface forms when a layer of hot dense magma is overlain by cooler less dense magma. Heat is transported between the layers faster than composition, driving convection in both layers and maintaining a sharp interface between them. If a layer of hot slightly less dense magma overlies a layer of cooler, denser but compositionally lighter magma, a finger interface forms between them, and compositional differences are transported downwards faster than heat (when each is expressed in terms of the corresponding density changes).Processes leading to the establishment of density, compositional and thermal gradients or steps during the filling of a magma chamber are considered next. The stratification produced, and the extent of mixing between the inflowing and resident magmas, are shown to depend on the flow rate and on the relation between the densities and viscosities of the two components. Slow dense inputs of magma may mix very little with resident magma of comparable viscosity as they spread across the floor of the chamber. A similar pulse injected with high upward momentum forms a turbulent “fountain”, which is a very efficient mechanism for magma mixing, as is a turbulent plume of less dense magma rising through the host magma to the top of the chamber.The form of convection in the filled magma chamber is controlled by the shape and size of the chamber, the viscosity of the magma (through the Rayleigh number which is usually high in the early stages of cooling), and by processes at the boundary which produce lighter or denser fluid than that in the interior of the chamber. Compositional convection due to fluid released by crystallization often dominates over thermal convection. If crystallization at the bottom of a funnel-shaped chamber releases a light magma, this convects away from the floor, causing turbulent convection which tends to homogenize the overlying melt. If the magma released is dense, it flows down the sloping floor and stratifies the magma at the base of the chamber. Convection driven by crystallization in an inverted funnel has the reverse effect, e.g. dense fluid released at the sloping roof now has a homogenizing influence. Assimilation of wall rocks can also lead to identical dynamical effects and thus to zoning in magma chambers. Melting of a light roof, for instance, can produce a layer of cool felsic magma overlying the hotter more basic magma in the lower part of the chamber, with a diffusive interface between them. Assimilation has also been discussed for other geometries: assimilation of the walls of dykes, sills and lava flows can occur when the flow is hot and turbulent, whereas if the flow is laminar the magma will chill against the adjacent rocks and protect them from assimilation.When the magma in a chamber is layered, crystallization can cause the composition and density to change in several ways which may lead to mixing. A crystallizing lower layer of hot dense magma can evolve till it has the density of the magma above it, causing sudden overturning and thorough mixing. On the other hand, with a much more viscous layer above, light fluid is released continuously during crystallization and rises to the top of the chamber with little mixing. Overturning of a gas-rich mafic lower layer into a cooler silicic layer can cause a sudden quenching, with the rapid release of gas which could trigger an explosive eruption. Mixing can also occur during eruption, as two layers are drawn up simultaneously from a stratified chamber when a critical flow velocity is exceeded, and they then mix in the outlet vent. Laboratory experiments suggest, however, that magma mixing is inhibited by large viscosity differences, both during the filling and emptying of a magma chamber. Scaling these results to magmas indicates that a basaltic magma can flow into the bottom of a chamber containing rhyolite with little or no mixing between them, and that these two magma types can also flow out through the same exit vent with limited mixing.Each of the phenomena discussed in this review has been studied, at least in a qualitative way, using laboratory experiments to identify and understand a significant physical process occurring in magma chambers. The field of geological fluid mechanics and its application to these problems is still very new, and further advances seem assured as new phenomena are identified and more detailed and quantitative analogue experiments are developed to study them.     

长白山火山岩浆柱岩浆上升作用过程

长白山火山岩浆柱是一个在长白山区地下总体呈串珠状排列的向东南倾斜的层状富岩浆集合体,岩浆柱宽度宽者300～500 km,窄者30～50 km,深度延伸可达上千km。在这个岩浆柱内,热物质聚集与挥发份富集可以发生部分熔融而形成不同成分与密度的岩浆,岩浆聚集上升至某个深度时的停滞聚集又可形成水平向扩展的岩浆房,压力作用下岩浆房内岩浆演化出密度较轻的岩浆则可进一步上升直至喷出地表。天池火山的母岩浆粗面玄武岩来自地幔岩浆库,由其演化形成的碱型系列粗面岩类和碱流岩类岩石则来自地壳岩浆房。拉斑玄武岩系列的偏酸性岩石来源的地壳岩浆房与碱型系列碱流岩来源的地壳岩浆房深度位置也不相同。天池火山造盾玄武岩TiO2含量和SiO2含量之间反相关关系不能单纯用岩浆房分异结晶来解释,TiO2含量较高的样品代表了源区地幔的较低熔融程度的熔体,而低程度熔融的岩浆来源于更深的位置。玄武质岩浆“熔融结束”的深度随时间的增加而增加的过程控制了岩浆形成深度随时间的增加而增加并且岩浆形成速率随时间的增加而降低的规律。天池火山碱流质岩浆房千年大喷发时岩浆超压极大值Δpmax=625 MPa,层状岩浆房半径35 km,喷出岩浆层厚700 m,喷出岩浆体积30 km3;粗面质喷发的岩浆房超压极大值Δpmax=15 MPa以上。天池火山千年大喷发时临界喷发熔体黏度μcritm>27×1010 Pa·s-1,碱流质岩浆是从一个粗面质岩浆母体经几万年的结晶分异时间演化得来的。气象站寄生火山活动喷发前临界熔体黏度μcritm=12×1011 Pa·s-1,这极高的熔体黏度与喷发物中含有大量晶体与气泡相吻合。千年大喷发级别的大规模喷发周期上万年,远大于小规模喷发几百年以内的时间周期。天池火山作用造盾阶段因为玄武岩都直接喷出了地表,多数传导与扩散的岩浆热都没有用于加热深地壳,所以早期加热效率不高。在1～16 Ma之后造锥阶段在深地壳内形成残余的部分熔融带并阻止了玄武岩的喷发,系统的热效率变得很高,残余熔体生产率也就得到了加速。全新世造伊格尼姆岩喷发阶段大量的演化的碱流质残余熔体因重力不稳定而侵入上地壳内,并且形成大得足以引起造破火山口喷发的岩浆房。     

Numerical modelling of regional faults in land subsidence prediction above gas/oil reservoirs

The stress variation induced by gas/oil production may activate pre‐existing regional faults. This may enhance the expected land subsidence due to the generation of mechanically weak points close to the producing field. A class of elasto‐plastic interface elements (IE), specifically designed to address the mechanical behaviour of faults over a regional scale, is integrated into a finite element (FE) geomechanical model and used to investigate the role exerted by active faults in anthropogenic land subsidence. The importance of regional faults depends on a variety of factors including depth of the depleted reservoir, fault number, orientation and size, geomechanical properties of porous medium, pore pressure drawdown induced by fluid production, etc. With the aid of some representative examples, a useful indication is provided as to where and how fault activation may influence both magnitude and extent of the land subsidence bowl above producing gas/oil reservoirs, pointing to a generally limited impact on the ground surface. The simulation of a real faulted gas reservoir in a complex 3‐D setting shows that the proposed IE can be simply and efficiently incorporated into a FE geomechanical model, thus improving the quality of the stress and displacement prediction. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Prediction and analysis of the stimulated reservoir volume for shale gas reservoirs based on rock failure mechanism

The ultra-low-permeability shale gas reservoir has a lot of well-developed natural fractures. It has been proven that hydraulic fracture growth pattern is usually a complex network fracture rather than conventional single planar fractures by micro-seismic monitoring, which can be explained as the shear and tensile failure of natural fractures or creation of new cracks due to the increase in reservoir pore pressure caused by fluid injection during the process of hydraulic fracturing. In order to simulate the network fracture growth, a mathematical model was established based on full tensor permeability, continuum method and fluid mass conservation equation. Firstly, the governing equation of fluid diffusivity based on permeability tensor was solved to obtain the reservoir pressure distribution. Then Mohr–Coulomb shear failure criterion and tensile failure criterion were used to decide whether the rock failed or not in any block on the basis of the calculated reservoir pressure. The grid-block permeability was modified according to the change of fracture aperture once any type of rock failure criterion was met within a grid block. Finally, the stimulated reservoir volume (SRV) zone was represented by an enhancement permeability zone. After calibrating the numerical solution of the model with the field micro-seismic information, a sensitivity study was performed to analyze the effects of some factors including initial reservoir pressure, injection fluid volume, natural fracture azimuth angle and horizontal stress difference on the SRV (shape, size, bandwidth and length). The results show that the SRV size increases with the increasing initial pore reservoir and injection fluid volume, but decreases with the increase in the horizontal principal stress difference and natural fracture azimuth angle. The SRV shape is always similar for different initial pore reservoir and injection fluid volume. The SRV is observed to become shorter in length and wider in bandwidth with the decrease in natural fracture azimuth angle and horizontal principal stress difference.     

A mechanistic view of some aspects of jointing in rocks

On the assumption that joints are tensile fractures, the origin of jointing is examined by using the concept of the microscopic Griffith crack of fracture mechanics. Most joints are expected to form through nucleation at tensile stress concentrations of Griffith cracks during a period of rising compressive stress and low confining pressure. The process of stable fracture propagation from numerous Griffith cracks is aided by porewater pressure and stress corrosion. Joints may also form during unloading through a residual stress effect. A mechanism of fracture through residual stress connected with failure at compressive stress concentrations of Griffith cracks is proposed and its implications examined.     

Mixing of rhyolite,trachyte and basalt magma erupted from a vertically and laterally zoned reservoir,composite flow P1, Gran Canaria

The 14.1 Ma composite welded ignimbrite P1 (45 km³ DRE) on Gran Canaria is compositionally zoned from a felsic lower part to a basaltic top. It is composed of four component magmas mixed in vertically varying proportions: (1) Na-rhyolite (10 km³) zoned from crystal-poor to highly phyric; (2) a continuously zoned, evolved trachyte to sodic trachyandesite magma group (6 km³); (3) a minor fraction of Na-poor trachyandesite (<1 km³); and (4) nearly aphyric basalt (26 km³) zoned from 4.3 to 5.2 wt% MgO. We distinguish three sites and phases of mixing: (a) Mutual mineral inclusions show that mixing between trachytic and rhyolitic magmas occurred during early stages of their intratelluric crystallization, providing evidence for long-term residence in a common reservoir prior to eruption. This first phase of mixing was retarded by increasing viscosity of the rhyolite magma upon massive anorthoclase precipitation and accumulation. (b) All component magmas probably erupted through a ring-fissure from a common upper-crustal reservoir into which the basalt intruded during eruption. The second phase of mixing occurred during simultaneous withdrawal of magmas from the chamber and ascent through the conduit. The overall withdrawal and mixing pattern evolved in response to pre-eruptive chamber zonation and density and viscosity relationships among the magmas. Minor sectorial variations around the caldera reflect both varying configurations at the conduit entrance and unsteady discharge. (c) During each eruptive pulse, fragmentation and particulate transport in the vent and as pyroclastic flows caused additional mixing by reducing the length scale of heterogeneities. Based on considerations of magma density changes during crystallization, magma temperature constraints, and the pattern of withdrawal during eruption, we propose that eruption tapped the P1 magma chamber during a transient state of concentric zonation, which had resulted from destruction of a formerly layered zonation in order to maintain gravitational equilibrium. Our model of magma chamber zonation at the time of eruption envisages a basal high-density Na-poor trachyandesite layer that was overlain by a central mass of highly phyric rhyolite magma mantled by a sheath of vertically zoned trachyte-trachyandesite magma along the chamber walls. A conventional model of vertically stacked horizontal layers cannot account for the deduced density relationships nor for the withdrawal pattern.     

汶川M_s 8.0级地震断层间相互作用及其对起始破裂段的启示

汶川地震在地表形成了北东向与北西向两个方向的地表破裂带,余震分布也清晰地显示沿着小鱼洞断裂存在一条北西向小震密集条带。为了研究北西向小鱼洞断裂在汶川地震破裂过程中的作用,在已有的地表破裂数据和认识的基础上,结合汶川地震前小震资料和余震资料,完善了汶川地震震源构造模型。分别计算了以北川—映秀断裂西南的虹口段(BY1)与小鱼洞断裂作为初始破裂段所产生的库仑静应力变化量(ΔCFS)分布图像。结果显示,以北川—映秀断裂虹口段(BY1)做为起始破裂段,虽然小鱼洞断裂西北段(XYD2)的局部地段处于应力触发区,但在出现地表破裂的小鱼洞断裂东南段(XYD1)却处于1.5 bar的应力抑制区,同时随着北川—映秀断裂向北东方向的进一步破裂,小鱼洞断裂仍处于应力抑制区,并且范围有所扩大。如果这样,在汶川地震过程中,小鱼洞断裂应该是稳定的,不可能产生地表破裂带及小震密集条带;以小鱼洞断裂作为起始破裂段,北川—映秀断裂BY1段的大部分区段处于1.0～1.5 bar的应力触发区,不但如此,小鱼洞断裂对彭灌断裂也有触发作用。基于以上结果,认为汶川地震破裂过程是以北西向小鱼洞断裂为起始破裂段,该断裂的破裂触发了北川—映秀断裂和彭灌断裂,并导致北川—映秀断裂向北东方向发生级联破裂。     

Evidence of a shallow magma intrusion beneath the NE Rift system of Mt. Etna during 2013

Continuous GPS (CGPS) data, collected at Mt. Etna between April 2012 and October 2013, clearly define inflation/deflation processes typically observed before/after an eruption onset. During the inflationary process from May to October 2013, a particular deformation pattern localised in the upper North Eastern sector of the volcano suggests that a magma intrusion had occurred a few km away from the axis of the summit craters, beneath the NE Rift system. This is the first time that this pattern has been recorded by CGPS data at Mt. Etna. We believe that this inflation process might have taken place periodically at Mt. Etna and might be associated with the intrusion of batches of magma that are separate from the main feeding system. We provide a model to explain this unusual behaviour and the eruptive regime of this rift zone, which is characterised by long periods of quiescence followed by often dangerous eruptions in which vents can open at low elevation and thus threaten the villages in this sector of the volcano.     

松辽盆地南部无机CO2成藏机理与分布

松辽盆地南部的幔源CO₂气主要存在3种脱气方式：热底辟体脱气、岩浆房脱气和地幔热底垫体脱气。古近纪末-新近纪时期的岩浆活动和岩石圈断裂是无机CO₂气藏形成的主控因素;属于岩石圈断裂的郯庐断裂北部断裂系,当处于活动期时,诱导幔源岩浆上涌,促使无机CO₂气从幔源岩浆脱出,先期富集在下地壳底部,并沿着下地壳的网状剪切带迂回向上运移到达拆离带;当断至拆离带的低角度基底断裂处于活动期时,无机CO₂气体沿着壳源断裂上移进入地壳浅层圈闭富集成藏。气源断裂体系的展布与幔源火成岩活动脱气是无机CO₂气运聚成藏的两大主控因素。幔源CO₂气藏主要分布在长岭断陷和德惠断陷:前者主要沿着孙吴-双辽断裂带分布,后者受控于哈尔滨-四平断裂带。长岭断陷的幔源CO₂气藏埋藏较深,由于向北西的红岗阶地和东部的德惠断陷层位在变新,导致CO₂气藏埋藏深度逐渐变浅。     

Neogene volcanism and Holocene earthquakes in the Tanlu fault zone, eastern China

In this paper, we study the relationship between Neogene volcanism and Holocene earthquakes in the Tanlu fault, eastern China. We find that fault segments through which Neogene and Quaternary magma have extruded do not show Holocene slip because they are covered by unfaulted basalts. In contrast, fault branches that are away from the Quaternary volcanic centers display Quaternary faulting and are responsible for earthquakes as recorded both historically and geomorphologically. Therefore, magma intrusion appears to modify fault activity in two different ways: (1) within the faults, the cooling magma serves as a cohesion or barrier, welding the faults so that they become stronger in resisting slip; (2) beneath the faults, the upwelling magma promotes slip of faults above the magma body, and hence generation of earthquakes. Physically, the first case results from contraction of the cooling magma, which causes a relative increase in fault-normal stress so that the fault failure resistance is enhanced. The second case results from the upward dynamic force and the heat brought in by the magma body, both of which cause the effective fault-normal stress to decrease so that the fault failure resistance is reduced. That could explain why earthquakes occur on faults bypassing the volcanic centers as typified in the Yishu fault zone and in the regions where heat flows are relatively high as shown in the Bohai Bay area.     

Quartz zoning and the pre-eruptive evolution of the ~340-ka Whakamaru magma systems,New Zealand

Cathodoluminescence (CL) zoning in quartz crystals from rhyolitic pumices in two ignimbrite members of the ~340-ka Whakamaru super-eruption deposits, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, is investigated in conjunction with the analysis of Ti concentration in quartz to reconstruct the history of changing magma chamber conditions and to elucidate the eruption-triggering processes. CL intensity images are taken as a proxy for Ti concentration and thus temperature and/or pressure and/or compositional variations during crystal growth history. Estimates of the maximum temperature changes (i.e., assuming other factors influencing Ti uptake remain constant) are made using the TitaniQ geothermometer based on the Ti concentration in quartz. These results are reviewed in comparison with Fe–Ti oxide, feldspar-melt and amphibole geothermometry. Core-to-rim quartz Ti profiles record a marked change in conditions (temperature increase and/or pressure decrease and/or change in melt composition) causing and then following a significant resorption horizon in the outer parts of the crystals. Two alternative models that could explain the quartz Ti zonation invoke a temperature increase caused by mafic recharge and/or a pressure decrease due to magma ponding and re-equilibration at shallow crustal levels. Concomitant changes in melt composition and Ti activity may, however, also have strongly influenced Ti uptake into the quartz. Some crystals also show other marked increases in CL brightness internally, but any accompanying magmatic changes did not result in eruption. Diffusion modelling indicates that this significant change in conditions occurred over ~10–85 years prior to caldera-forming eruption. This rapid thermal pulse or pressure change is interpreted as evidence for open-system processes, and appears to record a magma chamber recharge event that rejuvenated the Whakamaru magma system (melt-dominant magma plus crystal mush), and potentially acted as a trigger for processes that led to eruption.     

Microstructural evidence for magma confluence and reusage of magma pathways: implications for magma hybridization,Karakoram Shear Zone in NW India

In the Karakoram Shear Zone, Ladakh, NW India, Miocene leucogranitic dykes form an extensive, varied and complex network, linking an anatectic terrane exposed in the Pangong Range, with leucogranites of the Karakoram Batholith. Mineral paragenesis of the heterogeneous anatectic source rocks suggests melting has resulted from water influx into rocks at upper amphibolite facies conditions, and microstructures suggest anatexis was contemporaneous with shearing. The network is characterized by continuous and interconnected dykes, with only rare cross‐cutting relationships, forming swarms and chaotic injection complexes where magmatic rocks cover up to 50% of the outcrop area. Despite this volume of magma, the system did not lose continuity, suggesting that it did not flow en masse and that the magma network was not all liquid simultaneously. Leucogranites in this network, including leucosomes in migmatites, carry an isotopic signature intermediate between the two main anatectic rocks in the source, suggesting efficient homogenization of the magmatic products. Here, we describe a number of microscopic features of these magmatic rocks which suggests that several pulses of magma used the same pathways giving rise to textural and chemical disequilibrium features. These include: (i) narrow, tortuous corridors of fine‐grained minerals cutting across or lining the boundaries of larger grains, interpreted to be remnants of magma‐filled cracks cutting across a pre‐existing magmatic rock; (ii) corrosion of early formed grains at the contact with fine‐grained material; (iii) compositional zoning of early formed plagioclase and K‐feldspar grains and quartz overgrowths documented by cathodoluminescence imaging; (iv) incipient development of rapakivi and anti‐rapakivi textures, and (iv) different crystallographic preferred orientation of early formed quartz and fine‐grained quartz. Mapping of the fine‐grained corridors interpreted to represent late melt channels reveal an interlinked network broadly following the S‐C fabric defined by pre‐existing magmatic grains. We conclude that early formed dykes provided a pathway exploited intermittently or continuously by new magma batches. New influxes of magma opened narrow channels and migrated through a microscopic network following predominantly grain boundaries along an S‐C fabric related to syn‐magmatic shearing. A mixed isotopic signature resulted not from the mixing of magmas, but from the micro‐scale interaction between new magma batches and previously crystallized magmatic rocks, through local equilibration.