A history of the global understanding of the Earth

The author contributes to the development of a history of the global understanding of the Earth. He summarizes the main steps in the knowledge of the Earth's interior from antiquity to the present time and draws some lessons from this history.     

A scale-integrated exploration model for orogenic gold deposits based on a mineral system approach

Concept-based orogenic gold exploration requires a scale-integrated approach using a robust mineral system model.Most genetic hypotheses for orogenic gold deposits that involve near-surface or magmatic-hydrothermal fluids are now negated in terms of a global mineral system model.Plausible models involve metamorphic fluids,but the fluid source has been equivocal.Crustal metamorphic-fluid models are most widely-accepted but there are serious problems for Archean deposits,and numerous Chinese provinces,including Jiaodong,where the only feasible fluid source is sub-crustal.If all orogenic gold deposits define a coherent mineral system,there are only two realistic sources of fluid and gold,based on their syn-mineralization geodynamic settings.These are from devolatilization of a subducted oceanic slab with its overlying gold-bearing sulfide-rich sedimentary package,or release from mantle lithosphere that was metasomatized and fertilized during a subduction event,particularly adjacent to craton margins.In this model,CO_2 is generated during decarbonation and S and ore-related elements released from transformation of pyrite to pyrrhotite at about 500 ℃.This orogenic gold mineral system can be applied to conceptual exploration by first identifying the required settings at geodynamic to deposit scales.Within these settings,it is then possible to define the critical gold mineralization processes in the system:fertility,architecture,and preservation.The geological parameters that define these processes,and the geological,geophysical and geochemical proxies and responses for these critical parameters can then be identified.At the geodynamic to province scales,critical processes include a tectonic thermal engine and deep,effective,fluid plumbing system driven by seismic swarms up lithosphere-scale faults in an oblique-slip regime during uplift late in the orogenic cycle of a convergent margin.At the district to deposit scale,the important processes are fluid focussing into regions of complex structural geometry adjacent to crustal-scale plumbing systems,with gold deposition in trap sites involving complex conjugations of competent and/or reactive rock sequences and structural or lithological fluid caps.Critical indirect responses to defined parameters change from those generated by geophysics to those generated by geochemistry with reduction in scale of the mineral system-driven conceptual exploration.     

矿床保存变化研究的热年代学技术方法

成矿后矿床的保存与变化是矿床地质研究的重要组成部分,但研究程度不高,至今仍属于薄弱环节。矿床的保存与其隆升剥露密切相关,深入细致研究恢复矿区矿床的隆升和剥露历史,是揭示矿床保存变化的一种重要途径。本文重点论述研究矿床保存变化的技术方法,通过综合应用裂变径迹、（U-Th）/He、40Ar-39Ar年代学以及La-ICP-MS、锆石U-Pb定年等多种技术手段,研究成矿期次、构造活动期次以及二者间的联系,定量计算不同矿区、不同矿体、不同部位、不同时间的冷却隆升速率、隆升幅度、剥蚀速率和剥蚀量,探讨矿床保存深度与剥蚀量间的关系,总结不同时代、不同矿区矿床保存-变化过程,建立新的矿床地质-保存环境模型,完善矿床预测的综合示踪标志,最终预测不同矿区、不同地段隐伏矿床可能的产出深度,给出矿床可能已经被剥蚀殆尽的区段或地段,为深部找矿和区域成矿潜力评价提供依据。本文可为地质工作者的相关应用提供借鉴和手段。     

Microbiological exploration for mineral deposits: a new technique

The measurement of metal resistance in microorganisms is a cost-effective technique that should be used to supplement the presently employed inorganic geochemical methods of exploration. The method is based on the measurement of metal tolerances in the total microbial population by means of the use of culture techniques. It is strongly recommended that the culture technique demonstrated here be integrated into reconnaissance exploration programs that require efficient focusing to be successful. The technique was developed and successfully tested in the Tomichi Mining District, Colorado, U.S.A., where the environment is subalpine to tundra and the metals sought include Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag, and Au. It is easily adapted to most environments and metals, and draws additional advantage from being able to detect mineralization at greater distance and with lower sample density than standard inorganic sampling techniques.     

Prospector II: Towards a knowledge base for mineral deposits

What began in the mid-seventies as a research effort in designing an expert system to aid geologists in exploring for hidden mineral deposits has in the late eighties become a full-sized knowledge-based system to aid geologists in conducting regional mineral resource assessments. Prospector II, the successor to Prospector, is interactive-graphics oriented, flexible in its representation of mineral deposit models, and suited to regional mineral resource assessment. In Prospector II, the geologist enters the findings for an area, selects the deposit models or examples of mineral deposits for consideration, and the program compares the findings with the models or the examples selected, noting the similarities, differences, and missing information. The models or the examples selected are ranked according to scores that are based on the comparisons with the findings. Findings can be reassessed and the process repeated if necessary. The results provide the geologist with a rationale for identifying those mineral deposit types that the geology of an area permits. In future, Prospector II can assist in the creation of new models used in regional mineral resource assessment and in striving toward an ultimate classification of mineral deposits.     

Constructing a truly global model of Earth’s dynamics: basic principles

This is a snapshot of the today’s views of the Earth with its geospheres, and terrestrial and extraterrestrial triggers of its dynamics and energy sources. Along with the presented brief historic outline of the planetary evolution, these data can make basis for creating in the future a truly global model of the Earth’s dynamics and evolution.     

Crustal paleo-hydrogeological mapping as a tool in exploration for mineral deposits

Extensive studies in the southern Canadian Cordillera have shown that using geological and geochemical techniques, it is possible to regionally map distinctive paleo-hydrogeological regimes. Since research programs in the Canadian Cordillera and elsewhere have shown that many types of mineralization are created by regional scale flow systems, it is possible to use the regional maps of paleo-hydrogeological regimes to define those areas likely to host particular styles of mineralization.An application of these concepts to exploration is documented using the example of mesothermal Au mineralization in the southern Canadian Cordillera. Approximately 75% of the 300,000 km² study area can be eliminated from consideration for exploration due to the absence of the appropriate geological and geochemical indications of paleo-hydrogeological regimes capable of forming mesothermal Au deposits. Consequently, exploration efforts can be focussed on a much smaller, but more prospective region.     

On global forces of nature driving the Earth’s climate. Are humans involved?

The authors identify and describe the following global forces of nature driving the Earth’s climate: (1) solar radiation as a dominant external energy supplier to the Earth, (2) outgassing as a major supplier of gases to the World Ocean and the atmosphere, and, possibly, (3) microbial activities generating and consuming atmospheric gases at the interface of lithosphere and atmosphere. The writers provide quantitative estimates of the scope and extent of their corresponding effects on the Earth’s climate. Quantitative comparison of the scope and extent of the forces of nature and anthropogenic influences on the Earth’s climate is especially important at the time of broad-scale public debates on current global warming. The writers show that the human-induced climatic changes are negligible.     

云南个旧超大型矿床地质特征及成矿模式

个旧矿床不仅是一个超大型的锡矿床,同时也是大型的铜、铅、锌、钨和银矿床,此外还伴生众多的有色金属和稀有金属矿产。近些年来,除了成矿与燕山期花岗岩成矿有关的认识外,还有海底喷流成矿和玄武岩成矿的新观点。笔者在参与国家"十五"科技攻关课题《大型锡矿山接替资源探查技术与示范》工作中,通过野外调查和矿床地质特征的总结分析,提出了个旧超大型矿床的成矿模式,个旧矿区成矿作用的主要因素是燕山期含矿花岗岩,与碳酸盐建造和富含成矿物质的岩层发生相互作用,在花岗岩体的内外接触带附近,富集形成一系列锡铜多金属矿床,成矿作用围绕含矿花岗岩而进行。个旧矿区成矿花岗岩与碳酸盐建造和富含成矿物质的岩层以及构造的有利配置是控制矿床空间分布的根本原因。     

Geological modelling of mineral deposits for prediction in mining

Accurate prediction of the shape, location, size and properties of the solid rock materials to be extracted during mining is essential for reliable technical and financial planning. This is achieved through geological modelling of the three-dimensional (3D) shape and properties of the materials present in mineral deposits, and the presentation of results in a form which is accessible to mine planning engineers. In recent years the application of interactive graphics software, offering 3D database handling, modelling and visualisation, has greatly enhanced the options available for predicting the subsurface limits and characteristics of mineral deposits. A review of conventional 3D geological interpretation methods, and the model struc- tures and modelling methods used in reserve estimation and mine planning software packages, illustrates the importance of such approaches in the modern mining industry. Despite the widespread introduction and acceptance of computer hardware and software in mining applications, in recent years, there has been little fundamental change in the way in which geology is used in orebody modelling for predictive purposes. Selected areas of current research, aimed at tackling issues such as the use of orientation data, quantification of morphological differences, incorporation of geological age relationships, multi-resolution models and the application of virtual reality hardware and software, are discussed.     

矿床类型模型的地质构造背景、成矿环境和容矿岩石组合

每一矿床模型类似人们"指纹"各自不同。根据中国哲学的"白马是马而非马(类)"的概念,本文提出应深入研究同一类的矿床总体特征的普适性矿床模型。据此,普适性矿床模型(马类)将包括该类矿床中的矿床(白马),从而增强其对未知矿床比对的整体性。其次,本文又对矿床普适性模型提出成矿系列的新概念。即按各类矿床产出的不同环境,作者等根据一定地质构造背景、一定成矿环境和一定容矿岩石组合提出"中国矿床普适性模型分类"和与每类成矿环境相适应的74个矿床模型(表1)。据此,人们可从地质环境分类中发现相应的矿床模型,反之,一定的矿床模型也能反应其产出的成矿环境。     

Classification and mineralization of global lithium deposits and lithium extraction technologies for exogenetic lithium deposits

A reasonable classification of deposits holds great significance for identifying prospecting targets and deploying exploration. The world ’s keen demand for lithium resources has expedited the discovery of numerous novel lithium resources. Given the presence of varied classification criteria for lithium resources presently, this study further ascertained and classified the lithium resources according to their occurrence modes, obtaining 10 types and 5 subtypes of lithium deposits(resources) base...     

On mantle drag force for the formation of a next supercontinent as estimated from a numerical simulation model of global mantle convection

Three‐dimensional spherical mantle convection was simulated to predict future continental motion and investigate the driving force of continental motion. Results show that both the time required (≥300 Ma from the present) and the process for the next supercontinent formation are sensitive to the choice of critical rheological parameters for mantle dynamics, such as a viscosity contrast between the upper and lower mantles and a yield strength of the lithosphere. From all the numerical models studied herein, mantle drag force by horizontal mantle flow beneath the continents may mostly act as a resistance force for the continental motion in the process of forming a new supercontinent. The maximum absolute magnitude of the tensional and compressional stress acting at the base of the moving continents is in the order of 100 MPa, which is comparable to a typical value of the slab pull force.