COMPUTATION OF SIGNATURES OF LINEAR AIRGUN ARRAYS*

Far-field signatures from an airgun array are usually obtained by carrying out extensive field measurements. In order to decrease the need for such measurements, we have developed a method for computing signatures from linear airgun arrays where the distances between the airguns are such that the non-linear interaction among the airguns is negligible. The signature from a single airgun of a given type is computed from the following airgun parameters: airgun chamber volume, chamber pressure, airgun depth and position of the waveshape plate within the chamber. For calibration purposes, a recorded signature for one set of airgun parameters has to be provided for each type of airgun. The signatures are computed by using empirical relations between signature properties and the airgun parameters, and by treating the primary and bubble pulses separately. The far-field signature from a linear airgun array can now be computed by summation of the delayed signatures from the airguns in the array. Practical results are shown for an array with different PAR (Bolt) 1500 C airguns.     

INTERACTION BETWEEN AIRGUNS*

In the design of linear airgun arrays the interaction between the airguns is usually neglected. We review the different formulae which have been proposed for the minimum separation between airguns at which the interaction is negligible. These formulae can all be approximated by a linear function of a single variable. We have analyzed a large number of measurements in order to establish the amount of interaction between two airguns of various volumes at different pressures and depths. The resulting far-field signature has been measured and compared with the sum of the signatures from the two airguns measured in the same experimental situation. The changes in primary pulse amplitude, bubble period and primary/bubble peak-to-peak amplitude ratio were computed from the measurement data as a function of airgun separation, chamber volume, chamber pressure and airgun depth. The influence of a waveshape kit was investigated, and the effects of interaction and the effects of using a waveshape kit were compared.     

Prediction of signatures of airgun arrays using dual near-field hydrophones

Successful estimation of airgun-array signatures from near-field measurements depends on the accuracy of poorly controlled model parameters such as the effective sea surface reflection coefficient and source depth. We propose a method for prediction of robust source signatures, which are insensitive to fluctuations of the latter parameters. The method uses vertical pairs of near-field hydrophones to measure near-field pressure and its vertical gradient, combination of which eliminates sea surface reflections from the near-field data. This excludes the uncertainty related to the fluctuating sea state and source depth from the process of inversion of the near-field data for source signature. The method explicitly separates the recorded near-field pressure into its up and down going components, which allows one to measure the effective frequency- and angle-dependent sea surface reflection coefficient right at the source, as well as to estimate the actual source depth. Tests on synthetic and field data demonstrate robust performance of the method.     

SIGNATURE AND AMPLITUDE OF LINEAR AIRGUN ARRAYS *

During the last few years many airgun arrays have been designed with the objective of generating a short signature of high amplitude. For linear arrays of non-interacting airguns two rules have been derived that may help in the design or evaluation of airgun arrays. To achieve a short pressure pulse, the total available air volume has to be distributed over the individual guns in such a way that the tail of the signal, owing to the added bubble signals, becomes as flat as possible. When we think of ordering airguns according to volume, this flat signal tail can be achieved by designing the volumes such that the difference in bubble times of two adjacent guns is proportional to their volume to the power 2/3. The amplitude expected from a linear array of non-interacting airguns is limited by the physical length of the array. A graph of measured values tends to confirm this relation. No relation has been found between the total volume of an array and its amplitude. The graph also detects inefficient use of available array length of existing arrays.     

立体气枪阵列延迟激发震源特性及在浅海区OBS探测中的应用

利用中、小容量气枪组成的立体气枪阵列延迟激发震源和海底地震仪(OBS)在我国北部浅海海域开展了人工地震深部地球物理探测试验.基于水深条件和压制水体虚反射、提升低频能量的需要,使气枪震源有足够的输出能量和高品质子波特性,研究了立体气枪阵列延迟激发震源工作机理,经远场子波理论模拟优选了组合参数并进行了海上试验工作.结果表明,中、小容量气枪组成的立体气枪阵列延迟激发震源,适应了浅水海域的激发环境,降低了由虚反射造成的局部陷波和干扰作用,有效地改善了OBS信号的品质,获得了Ps,Pg,PmP,Pn等多种震相.创新了由中、小容量气枪组成的立体气枪阵列延迟激发震源在浅海区OBS探测中的应用,也填补了南黄海海域深地震探测数据的空白,为南黄海、渤海深部地壳结构研究及含油气盆地形成演化研究提供了重要的基础资料.     

电离层人工调制激发的下行ELF/VLF波辐射

通过大功率ELF/VLF调幅高频波对电离层进行加热,形成电离层虚拟天线,可以作为发射ELF/VLF波的一种有效手段.本文使用汪枫(2009)的调制加热模型,计算高频加热电离层产生的低频辐射源强度,采用全波解算法分析辐射的低频波向下传播过程中的衰减和反射问题,并采用HAARP实验参数,模拟出在海面上接收到的低频信号强度为...     

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON AIRGUN SIGNATURES1

Experiments in an 850 litre water tank were performed in order to study temperature effects on airgun signatures, and to achieve a better understanding of the physical processes that influence an airgun signature. The source was a bolt airgun with a chamber volume of 1.6 cu.in. The pressure used was 100 bar and the gun depth was 0.5 m. The water temperature in the tank was varied between 5°C and 45°C. Near-field signatures were recorded at different water temperatures. Typical signature characteristics such as the primary-to-bubble ratio and the bubble time period increased with increasing water temperature. For comparison and in order to check whether this is valid for larger guns, computer modelling of airguns with chamber volumes of 1.6 and 40 cu.in. was performed. In the modelling the same behaviour of the signatures with increasing water temperature can be observed. The increase in the primary-to-bubble ratio and the bubble time period with increasing water temperature can be explained by an increased mass transfer across the bubble wall.     

Insight into the marine controlled‐source electromagnetic signal propagation

In marine controlled‐source electromagnetic (CSEM) surveys the subsurface is explored by emitting low‐frequency signals from an electric dipole source close to the sea‐bed. The main goal is often to detect and describe possible thin resistive layers beneath the sea‐bed. To gain insight into how CSEM signals propagate, it is informative to study a stratified model. The electromagnetic field is then given in terms of integrals over TE‐ and TM‐polarized plane‐wave constituents. An asymptotic evaluation of the field integrals for large propagation distances results in explicit spatial expressions for the field components and the derived expressions can be used to analyse how the CSEM signals propagate. There are two major signal pathways in a standard CSEM model. One of these pathways is via the thin resistive layer and the resulting response is accounted for by a pole in the reflection response for the TM mode. The signal is propagating nearly vertically down to the resistor from the source, then guided while attenuated along the reservoir, before propagating nearly vertically up to the receiver. The response is slightly altered by the sea‐bed interface and further modified in shallow water due to multiple reflections between the sea‐surface and sea‐bed at both the source and receiver sides. The other major signal pathway is via the resistive air half‐space, the so‐called airwave. The airwave is generated by the TE mode and interacts with the subsurface via vertically propagating signals reflected between the sea‐surface and subsurface at both the source and receiver sides.     

小波基在GPS-IR反演土壤湿度中优选方法的研究

全球定位系统多径干涉遥感技术(Global Positioning System-Interference Reflection,GPS-IR)是一种基于卫星反射信号的新遥感技术,可实现土壤湿度、雪深、海平面等方面的监测.针对卫星反射信号分离问题,本文利用小波分析对信噪比(Signal-to-Noise Ratio,SNR)中的卫星反射信号进行分离.小波基的选择直接影响到卫星反射信号分离的效果,本文通过对比低阶多项式、sym10、bior6.8、dmey和coif5这5种方法的实际消趋和反演效果来优选.经实验表明:利用coif5小波基分解6层能够有效提高卫星反射信号的分离精度和信号的分辨率,获取的相对延迟相位与土壤湿度之间的线性关系显著增强.     

TEST RESULTS OF A NEW TYPE OF EFFICIENT SMALL AIRGUN ARRAY*

Recently the author developed and demonstrated (Safar 1980) an efficient method for operating the airgun. The method involves the generation of a short seismic pulse from the pressure bubble pulses radiated by an airgun when fired several times at the same optimum depth but with different chamber pressures. The purpose of this paper is to present and discuss the test results obtained when implementing the same method using a two-dimensional airgun array. The array consists of seven 0.65 liter airguns fired simultaneously at the same depth but with different chamber pressures. It is shown that the far-field pressure pulse radiated by the seven 0.65 liter airgun array is similar to that radiated by the Flexichoc seismic source. It is concluded that the proposed airgun array can be used as a subarray to form an extremely powerful super-long array suitable for deep seismic exploration. The author would like to thank the Chairman and Board of Directors of the British Petroleum Co. Ltd for permission to publish this paper. Thanks are also due to Mike Symes and Lovell Cox for carrying out the field tests and Seismograph Service (England) Ltd for providing the airguns.     

不同激发环境下井中气枪震源特征研究

基于单枪容量为250in3的BHS-2200LL井中气枪,在内径0.2、5.0m不同激发井中开展了气枪震源特征对比分析,研究表明：①5.0m井中气枪激发产生的信号优势频率集中在10～40Hz,比在0.2m井中的低,这主要是由于较大水体利于气泡的震荡;②在能量方面,5.0m井中激发信号的能量强于0.2m井中的,幅度上相差1个数量级,单次激发的传播距离可达9km;③2种激发环境下产生的气枪信号都具有较好的重复性。     

Research Note: Low-frequency pneumatic seismic sources

Pneumatic seismic sources, commonly known as airguns, have been serving us well for decades, but there is an increasing need for sources with improved low-frequency signal and reduced environmental impact. In this paper, we present a new pneumatic source that is designed to achieve these goals by operating with lower pressures and larger volumes. The new source will release more air creating larger bubbles with longer bubble periods than airguns. The release of the air will be tuned so that the rise time will be longer and the sound pressure level and its slope will be lower. Certain engineering features will eliminate cavitation. Larger bubbles increase low-frequency content of the signal, longer rise times decrease mid-frequency content and the elimination of cavitation reduces high-frequency content. We have not yet built a full-scale version of the new source. However, we have manufactured a small-scale low-pressure source incorporating most of the engineering features, and tested it in a lake. Here, we present the lake data that, as expected, show a significant reduction in the sound pressure level, increase in rise time, decrease in slope and decrease in high-frequency content while maintaining the same low-frequency content when the source prototype is operated at low pressure compared with high pressure. Synthetic data produced by numerical modelling of the full-scale proposed pneumatic source suggest that the new source will improve the low-frequency content and can produce geophysically useful signal down to 1 Hz.     

Deghosting towed streamer data in τ/p domain based on rough sea surface reflectivity

Currently, the deghosting of towed streamer seismic data assumes a flat sea level and a sea-surface reflection coefficient of ?1; this decreases the precision of deghosting. A new method that considers the rough sea surface is proposed to suppress ghost reflections. The proposed deghosting method obtains the rough sea surface reflection coefficient using Gaussian statistics, and calculates the optimized deghosting operator in the τ/p domain. The proposed method is closer to the actual sea conditions, offers an improved deghosting operator, removes the ghost reflections from marine towed seismic data, widens the bandwidth and restores the low-frequency information, and finally improves the signal-tonoise ratio and resolution of the seismic data.     

Deghosting by echo‐deblending

A marine source generates both a direct wavefield and a ghost wavefield. This is caused by the strong surface reflectivity, resulting in a blended source array, the blending process being natural. The two unblended response wavefields correspond to the real source at the actual location below the water level and to the ghost source at the mirrored location above the water level. As a consequence, deghosting becomes deblending (‘echo‐deblending’) and can be carried out with a deblending algorithm. In this paper we present source deghosting by an iterative deblending algorithm that properly includes the angle dependence of the ghost: It represents a closed‐loop, non‐causal solution. The proposed echo‐deblending algorithm is also applied to the detector deghosting problem. The detector cable may be slanted, and shot records may be generated by blended source arrays, the blending being created by simultaneous sources. Similar to surface‐related multiple elimination the method is independent of the complexity of the subsurface; only what happens at and near the surface is relevant. This means that the actual sea state may cause the reflection coefficient to become frequency dependent, and the water velocity may not be constant due to temporal and lateral variations in the pressure, temperature, and salinity. As a consequence, we propose that estimation of the actual ghost model should be part of the echo‐deblending algorithm. This is particularly true for source deghosting, where interaction of the source wavefield with the surface may be far from linear. The echo‐deblending theory also shows how multi‐level source acquisition and multi‐level streamer acquisition can be numerically simulated from standard acquisition data. The simulated multi‐level measurements increase the performance of the echo‐deblending process. The output of the echo‐deblending algorithm on the source side consists of two ghost‐free records: one generated by the real source at the actual location below the water level and one generated by the ghost source at the mirrored location above the water level. If we apply our algorithm at the detector side as well, we end up with four ghost‐free shot records. All these records are input to migration. Finally, we demonstrate that the proposed echo‐deblending algorithm is robust for background noise.     

Retrieving virtual reflection responses at drill‐bit positions using seismic interferometry with drill‐bit noise

In the field of seismic interferometry, researchers have retrieved surface waves and body waves by cross‐correlating recordings of uncorrelated noise sources to extract useful subsurface information. The retrieved wavefields in most applications are between receivers. When the positions of the noise sources are known, inter‐source interferometry can be applied to retrieve the wavefields between sources, thus turning sources into virtual receivers. Previous applications of this form of interferometry assume impulsive point sources or transient sources with similar signatures. We investigate the requirements of applying inter‐source seismic interferometry using non‐transient noise sources with known positions to retrieve reflection responses at those positions and show the results using synthetic drilling noise as source. We show that, if pilot signals (estimates of the drill‐bit signals) are not available, it is required that the drill‐bit signals are the same and that the phases of the virtual reflections at drill‐bit positions can be retrieved by deconvolution interferometry or by cross‐coherence interferometry. Further, for this case, classic interferometry by cross‐correlation can be used if the source power spectrum can be estimated. If pilot signals are available, virtual reflection responses can be obtained by first using standard seismic‐while‐drilling processing techniques such as pilot cross‐correlation and pilot deconvolution to remove the drill‐bit signatures in the data and then applying cross‐correlation interferometry. Therefore, provided that pilot signals are reliable, drill‐bit data can be redatumed from surface to borehole depths using this inter‐source interferometry approach without any velocity information of the medium, and we show that a well‐positioned image below the borehole can be obtained using interferometrically redatumed reflection responses with just a simple velocity model. We discuss some of the practical hurdles that restrict the application of the proposed method offshore.     

Application of effective medium approximation theory to ocean remote sensing under wave breaking

Based on the effective medium approximation theory of composites, the empirical model proposed by Pandey and Kakar is remedied to investigate the microwave emissivity of sea surface under wave breaking driven by strong wind. In the improved model, the effects of seawater bubbles, droplets and difference in temperature of air and sea interface (DTAS) on the emissivity of sea surface covered by whitecaps are discussed. The model results indicate that the effective emissivity of sea surface in-creases with DTAS increasing, and the impacts of bubble structures and thickness of whitecaps layer on the emissivity are included in the model by introducing the effective dielectric constant of whitecaps layer. Moreover, a good agreement is obtained by comparing the model results with the Rose’s ex-perimental data.     

Marine seismic wavefield measurement to remove sea-surface multiples

We propose a new method for removing sea-surface multiples from marine seismic reflection data in which, in essence, the reflection response of the earth, referred to a plane just above the sea-floor, is computed as the ratio of the plane-wave components of the upgoing wave and the downgoing wave. Using source measurements of the wavefield made during data acquisition, three problems associated with earlier work are solved: (i) the method accommodates source arrays, rather than point sources; (ii) the incident field is removed without simultaneously removing part of the scattered field; and (iii) the minimum-energy criterion to find a wavelet is eliminated. Pressure measurements are made in a horizontal plane in the water. The source can be a conventional array of airguns, but must have both in-line and cross-line symmetry, and its wavefield must be measured and be repeatable from shot to shot. The problem is formulated for multiple shots in a two-dimensional configuration for each receiver, and for multiple receivers in a two-dimensional configuration for each shot. The scattered field is obtained from the measurements by subtracting the incident field, known from measurements at the source. The scattered field response to a single incident plane wave at a single receiver is obtained by transforming the common-receiver gather to the frequency–wavenumber domain, and a single component of this response is obtained by Fourier transforming over all receiver coordinates. Each scattered field component is separated into an upgoing wave and a downgoing wave using the zero-pressure condition at the water-surface. The upgoing wave may then be expressed as a reflection coefficient multiplied by the incident downgoing wave plus a sum of scattered downgoing plane waves, each multiplied by the corresponding reflection coefficient. Keeping the upgoing scattered wave fixed, and using all possible incident plane waves for a given frequency, yields a set of linear simultaneous equations for the reflection coefficients which are solved for each plane wave and for each frequency. To create the shot records that would have been measured if the sea-surface had been absent, each reflection coefficient is multiplied by complex amplitude and phase factors, for source and receiver terms, before the five-dimensional Fourier transformation back to the space–time domain.     

Controlled source strength variation by changing the firing pressure ‐ a sensitivity study for 4D calibration

For a 4D seismic operation to be successful, it is important to know what kind of 4D signal we expect to observe, as well as its magnitude. Normally, in a 4D feasibility study, we use rock physics models to quantify the effect of fluid or pressure changes within the reservoir and calculate the corresponding effects to the seismogram. However, to find if the predicted changes are actually observable at a given field, a dedicated calibration procedure might give valuable insight. One such procedure for marine seismics is to gradually change the source strength by varying the firing pressure in order to detect the sensitivity threshold for a given subsurface reflection. This procedure would be practical and feasible if the change of the source signature changes linearly with the source pressure. However, non‐linear effects will lead to minor changes in the later arrivals of the source signature, the so‐called bubble. By investigating these introduced errors for a reasonable air‐gun array we conclude that the method is still feasible since we find it possible to control and diminish the impact of the introduced errors.     

薄互层条件下AVO技术的应用

本文结合实际资料在详细分析砂泥岩薄互层反射特征基础上,提出气层反射特征不仅有AVO正异常,还有AVO负异常及非正非负AVO异常.由于实际的砂泥岩薄互层组合的复杂变化,在解释中不能硬套通常的厚层反射或单个薄层的模式.针对不同地区不同层位,必须制作与实际地质情况相一致的CDP道集记录地震模型,才能得到正确的反射特征.应用本文提出的方法预测了宋站等地区的气藏分布,经钻探证实,获得了满意的结果.     

PNEUMATIC ACOUSTIC ENERGY SOURCE*

In recent years considerable work has been done to devise a satisfactory non-dynamite seismic system that would replace dynamite in offshore areas. Prior to the advent of digital recording and processing, the non-dynamite sources have generally not provided the depth of penetration or the resolution required for satisfactory seismic interpretation. More recent developments in non-dynamite offshore marine sources include adaptation of the Vibroseis from a land unit to a marine unit, and adaptation of the Dinoseis unit from a land to a marine unit. The SUE (Seismic Underwater Explorer) system is a thermodynamic non-dynamite source utilizing a mixture of propane and oxygen detonated in a special chamber approximately 15 feet below the water surface. This source gives penetration to more than 4 sec in areas typified by Gulf of Mexico type geology and shows deeper penetration than had previously been obtained by dynamite along the western United States in areas with 20 lb charge limitations. A pneumatic source, the airgun, has been in production use in the United States since June 1966. This non-dynamite source provides an intriguing amount of versatility and can be expanded to provide additional energy as necessary to obtain the penetration desired. Tests using systems comprised of from eight to twenty-three airguns show penetration in excess of 5 seconds in many areas. Power spectra comparisons both in amplitude and frequency content demonstrate that this is a controlled source generating a controlled seismic wavelet and a controlled frequency spectrum that can be tailored to fit requirements of particular areas. Sample sections obtained in the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean offshore California show adequate penetration to 5.0 seconds reflection time. Quantitative measurements with the airguns demonstrate the effect of:

• 1 Variation of the number of guns in the system;
• 2 Shaping the frequency spectrum by using different sizes of airguns in the system;
• 3 Effects on signal-to-noise ratios as a result of stacking several small energy sources together;
• 4 Reproducibility of the initial pulse wavelet from shot to shot.

The improvement in record quality as a result of advanced digital processing with non-dynamite sources is comparable to that obtained with dynamite sources. Non-dynamite sources make additional improvements possible where high source multiplicity is advantageous. Excellent dynamic correlations yield accurate velocity control as well as definitions of apparent velocities attributable to multiples and primary-to-multiple amplitude relationships. Non-dynamite sources are being used more and more extensively in offshore exploration. The advent of digital recording and processing provides a means for improving depth of penetration and resolution of many non-dynamite sources.