Analysis of recent climatic variations in Castile and Leon (Spain)

This paper reports the results of the analysis of annual mean temperature and precipitation series from 171 meteorological stations distributed over Castile and Leon [Castilla y León in Spanish] in Spain on monthly, seasonal and annual time-scales for a 37-year study period (1961–1997). Various statistical tools were used to detect and characterize significant changes in these series. The magnitude of the trends was derived from the slopes of the regression lines using the least squares method, and the statistical significance was determined by means of nonparametric tests. Positive trends of about 0.33 °C in the annual mean temperature were found for the whole period. Mean temperatures increased in spring and winter, the winter trend being statistically significant. The months of December and March also showed significant trends. Decreases in rainfall were found for three seasons (winter, spring and autumn), with statistically significant trends in March. Summer precipitation showed slight increases over the 37-year period. On this basis, the authors consider that the increase in summer precipitation and the decrease in the range of average temperatures between the warmest and the coldest months of the year (continentality), point towards a trend to a more oceanic climate in Castile and Leon.     

A description of persistent climatic anomalies in a 1000-year climatic model simulation

 The Mark 2 version of the CSIRO coupled global climatic model has been used to generate a 1000-year simulation of natural (i.e. unforced) climatic variability representative of “present conditions”. The annual mean output from the simulation has been used to investigate the occurrence of decadal and longer trends over the globe for a number of climatic variables. Here trends are defined to be periods of years with a climatic anomaly of a given sign. The analysis reveals substantial differences between the trend characteristics of the various climatic variables. Trends longer than 12 years duration were unusual for rainfall. Such trends were fairly uniformly distributed over the globe and had an asymmetry in the rate of occurrence for wet or dry conditions. On the other hand, trends in surface wind stress, and especially the atmospheric screen temperature, were of longer duration but primarily confined to oceanic regions. The trends in the atmospheric screen temperature could be traced deep into the oceanic mixed layer, implying large changes in oceanic thermal inertia. This thermal inertia then constituted an important component of the `memory' of the climatic system. While the geographic region associated with a given trend could be identified over several adjacent grid boxes of the model, regional plots for individual years of the trend revealed a range of variations, suggesting that a consistent forcing mechanism may not be responsible for a trend at a given location. Typical return periods for 12-year rainfall trends were once in 1000 years, highlighting the rarity of such events. Using a looser definition of a trend revealed that drying trends up to 50 years duration were also possible, attributable solely to natural climatic variability. Significant (∼20% to 40%) rainfall reductions per year can be associated with a long-term drying trend, hence such events are of considerable climatic significance. It can take more than 100 years for the hydrologic losses associated with such a trend to be overcome. Overall, the simulation provides new and useful insights into climatic trends, and quantifies a number of poorly observed characteristics. The results highlight the extensive and pervasive influence of unforced natural climatic variability as an omnipresent generator of climatic trends. Received: 20 January 2000 / Accepted: 21 September 2000     

大庆地区气候异常初步分析

利用统一的标准和方法，计算并分析了大庆地区（肇州，肇源，林甸，林尔伯特4个站）36年的气温和降水演变特征，从中找出气候异常的规律。     

Analysis of recent climatic changes in the Arabian Peninsula region

Summary Interest in the potential climatic consequences of the continued buildup of anthropo-generated greenhouse gases has led many scientists to conduct extensive climate change studies at the global, hemispheric, and regional scales. In this investigation, analyses are conducted on long-term historical climate records from the Arabian Peninsula region. Over the last 100 years, temperatures in the region increased linearly by 0.63 °C. However, virtually all of this warming occurred from 1911–1935, and over the most recent 50 years, the Arabian Peninsula region has cooled slightly. In addition, the satellite-based measurements of lower-tropospheric temperatures for the region do not show any statistically significant warming over the period 1979–1991. While many other areas of the world are showing a decrease in the diurnal temperature range, the Arabian Peninsula region reveals no evidence of a long-term change in this parameter. Precipitation records for the region show a slight, statistically insignificant decrease over the past 40 years. The results from this study should complement the mass of information that has resulted from similar regional climate studies conducted in the United States, Europe, and Australia.With 5 Figures     

Long term (100 yr) climatic trends for agriculture at selected locations in Canada

Long term (100 yr) trends of 17 selected annual climatic parameters were studied for 5 locations in Canada. Simple linear correlation coefficients (r) were computed for each variable with time. Temporal variations were not uniform over space, as might be expected over a large continent. Some variables differed significantly with time, while others did not. Forage aridity indices (FAI), or seasonal forage water deficits, had significant negativer values at Agassiz and Ottawa, indicating decreasing aridity over time, but no such trends were evident at the other 3 locations. Stations in western Canada were characterized byr values (mostly significant atP = 0.01) which indicated trends to earlier last spring frost (SF), later growing season end (GSE), later first fall frosts (FF) and increased frost-free period (FFP), growing degree-days (GDD) and Corn Heat Units (CHU). Stations in eastern Canada did not exhibit the same warming trends. No warming trends were observed in January mean temperature (JAN).Five-year moving averages and standard deviations were calculated and plotted forFAI, FF, GDD andGSL (growing season length). The climatic attributes were extremely variable, making detection of warming or cooling trends difficult. TheFAI for the last 30 yr or more at Agassiz and for the last 20 yr at Ottawa was well below the 100 yr normal. At Indian Head,FAI values were high during the 1930's and again around 1960, reflecting the drought conditions which occurred at those times. The other 3 variables showed a tendency to slightly increasing values over the past 50 yr at Agassiz, Indian Head, Brandon and Ottawa. Little, if any, systematic change in these elements was evident at Charlottetown. Standard deviations (S _d) fluctuated widely at all locations, with generally little evidence to suggest that the climate has become more or less variable. Cumulative frequency distribution for the total period and the first 70 yr were compared to the last 30 yr. There was an increased frequency of lowerFAI values at 2 locations for the 30-yr period.GDD increased significantly at lower probabilities at Indian Head. Differences in frequency distributions were generally slight for all other variables at the 5 locations.     

陕北地区近46年气候变化分析

选用陕北黄土高原6站1957—2002年气象资料,运用主成分分析、相关分析和趋势分析对各气象要素的年、季序列进行了分析。结果表明:陕北黄土高原地区降水量的变化是在波动中呈减少趋势,降水量的减少主要是秋季降水变化所引起。年平均气温呈上升趋势,各季中以冬季增温最显著。平均风速的年际变化较小并呈阶段性;80年代为相对冷湿期,90年代向暖干发展。     

Solar,volcanic, and CO2 forcing of recent climatic changes

The climate, as represented by the mean Northern Hemisphere temperature, has shown substantial changes within the past century. The temperature record is utilized as a means of elucidating the relative importance of anthropogenic CO₂ increase, volcanic aerosols, and possible solar insolation variations in externally forcing climate changes. Solar luminosity variations, suggested by observed solar radius variations on an ≈ 80 yr time scale, allow a self-consistent explanation of the hemispheric temperature trends. Evidence for solar influences on the climate is also found on the shorter 11 and 22 yr time scales present in solar activity cycles. The author is a staff scientist at the High Altitude Observatory, P.O. Box 3000, Boulder, CO 80307, of the National Center for Atmospheric Research. This work was completed while the author was a postdoctoral fellow in the Advanced Study Program of NCAR. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. The National Center for Atmospheric Research is sponsored by the National Science Foundation.     

长江三角洲夏季降水异常及气候成因

根据长江三角洲地区61个气象站的1961--2007年夏季降水量资料,应用EOF和REOF等统计方法分析了长江三角洲地区夏季降水的时空分布及演变特征,并探讨了夏季降水异常类型的初步成因。结果表明：47a来长江三角洲地区夏季降水有比较明显的年代际变化,1980s开始有明显增加,该地区降水异常可以分为两种类型,分别为一致偏多（少）型和北多（少）南少（多）型,并且通过分析500hPa环流型势、副热带高压和ENSO事件的特征,初步探讨了降水异常的可能成因。     

Rainwater Chemistry at Mt. Etna (Italy): Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Major Ions

Major ion content of 37 wet-only rainwater samples collected on the southern flank of Mount Etna volcano was investigated. Measured pH values range from 3.80 to 7.22 and display a positive correlation with Ca²⁺ and an inverse correlation with NO₃ ^–, suggesting that anthropogenic NO_x are the most effective acidifying agents while Ca, likely as solid CaCO₃, is the prevailing proton acceptor. Na/Cl ratios indicate a dominant marine origin for both species, while K, mg and Ca contents point to additional sources (soil dust, fertilisers etc.). Nitrate and sulphate concentrations display a nearly constant ratio indicating a common anthropogenic origin, and only a few samples are characterised by sulphate excess. The analysis of time series reveals a good correlation between the excess sulphate in rainwater and SO₂ fluxes from the summit craters plume. Non sea salt chloride contents show also a significant correlation with volcanic activity indicating a magmatic sulphur and chloride contribution to rainwater. Meteoric flux estimations point to a prevailing magmatic origin for sulphur in the collected rainwaters while sea spray is the main source of chlorine.     

Impact of recent climatic change on growth of low elevation eastern Mediterranean forest trees

Evidence is presented of how Pinus halepensis Miller from dry habitats at <300 m elevation of four Greek island regions have responded to climatic conditions of the last two centuries. We compared historical periods of low growth due to low precipitation with the recent period of significant precipitation decline. In all cases trees?? growth patterns across the twentieth century were consistent with trends in annual (rather than seasonal) precipitation, with lowest values in both precipitation and radial growth during the last two decades of the twentieth century, the worst conditions for tree growth in more than 200 years. The data are compared with trends across different vegetation belts of the northern Mediterranean basin. Drought related tree mortality in Greece in 2000 and 2007 coincided with the most severe fire outbreaks on record. IPCC WG I (2007) climate scenarios for the Mediterranean suggest a further decline in precipitation, particularly in the eastern regions. Should this occur, growth reduction in trees, tree mortality and damage from forest fires are likely to become more severe.     

Evidence of climate change within the Adamello Glacier of Italy

We analyze a daily series of rainfall, snowfall, air temperature, and snow water equivalent at fixed dates from 40 high-altitude stations on the Adamello Glacier area (Italian Alps), for the period 1965–2007. Purposes of the study are (1) to investigate significant variation in time, (2) to evaluate effect of temperature changes on cryospheric water cycle, and (3) to evaluate underlying climate patterns and the most significant variables for climate change studies. We detect the presence of a trend using linear regression, moving window average and Mann Kendall test. Linear dependence of water related variables on temperatures is assessed. We find substantially unchanged atmospheric water input along with increasing temperature and rainfall, decreasing snowfall and snow water equivalent at thaw, and shortening of snow cover extent and duration. We carry out a principal components analysis which highlights patterns of precipitation distribution resulting from local temperature and external forcing. A set of the most representative variables for climate and glacier studies is then assessed. A comparison with three nearby Southern Alpine glacierized areas in Italy and Switzerland shows substantial agreement. In spite of the relative shortness of the series, the results here are of interest and can be used as a benchmark for climate change impact assessment for the Adamello Glacier area and southern Alps.     

1970—2019年陇东地区强对流天气的气候特征分析

利用1970—2019年庆阳市8个国家观测站的常规观测资料、联防记录、SRTMDEMUTM 90 m分辨率数字高程和归一化植被指数（NDVI）数据,对雷暴、冰雹和雷暴大风3种强对流天气的气候特征进行对比分析。结果表明：庆阳市不同类型强对流天气的空间分布差异明显,雷暴东南部多,中、西部少。冰雹西北、东南部多中部少;雷暴大风则是中部多,东、西部少。不同强对流天气受下垫面的影响不同,冰雹的空间分布主要与海拔高度有关,两者呈显著的正相关关系,而雷暴大风则与NDVI呈显著的反相关关系。近50年3类强对流天气的范围和日数的年际变化整体呈减少趋势,尤其是21世纪以来减少趋势显著,并先后发生了显著的减少突变。雷暴大风的突变较早,发生在20世纪80年代中期,而雷暴和冰雹的突变较迟,发生于90年代中期前后;月变化基本呈“单峰型”特征,其中雷暴大风的平均日数出现最早为5月,但其平均站数峰值出现在7月;冰雹平均日数和站次的峰值均出现在6月,雷暴大风的峰值出现在7月;日变化呈“午后”型特征,14—19时最频发;白天时段的对流频率是夜间的2倍以上,夜间的对流主要集中在20—22时。     

Comments on ‘solar,volcanic and CO2 forcing of recent climatic changes’

The various limitations of a recent analysis of climatic variations in terms of solar volcanic and carbon dioxide forcing have been examined in more detail. In particular, the possibility of additional CO₂ release from forest clearing greatly increases the very large statistical uncertainties in the original analysis. While the inclusion of the various forcing terms is a highly desirable approach, the uncertainties in the data used mean that it is not appropriate to suggest that the surface warming due to the greenhouse effect has now been roughly determined.     

Long-term variation of rainfall erosivity in Calabria (Southern Italy)

The changes in rainfall erosivity have been investigated using the rainfall erosivity factor (R) proposed for USLE by Wischmeier and Smith (R _W-S ) and some simplified indexes (the Fournier index modified by Arnoldus, F, a regional index spatial independent, R _Fr , and a regional index spatial dependent, R _Fs ) estimated by indirect approaches. The analysis has been carried out over 48 rainfall stations located in Calabria (Southern Italy) using data collected in the period 1936–2012 and divided in three sub-periods. The series of the erosivity indexes and of some precipitation variables have been analyzed for evidence of trends using standard methods. The simplified indexes suggested a general underestimation of the rainfall erosivity with respect to R _W-S . The mean underestimation ranged between 23 and 54 % for R _Fr and from 10 to 15 % for R _Fs . Both the sign and the magnitude of the trends were different for the different stations depending on the variable and sub-period considered. In general, the erosivity increased during the period 1936–1955 (1^st sub-period) and during the more recent sub-period (1992–2012, 3^rd sub-period), whereas it decreased during 1958–1977 (2^nd sub-period). The evidence of trends was generally higher for R _W-S than for R _Fr and R _Fs . Focusing on the most recent sub-period (3^rd sub-period), all the variables analyzed showed mainly increasing trends but with different magnitude. More particularly, R _W-S showed a mean increment of 29 %; F, R _Fr and R _Fs increased by 11, 15 and 18 %, respectively; the maximum intensity of 0.5-h precipitation increased by 5 %; and the annual precipitation increased by 22 %. Consequently, it remains difficult to define which precipitation variable plays the dominant role in the temporal variation of rainfall erosivity in the region. However, the overall results suggest that the indexes estimated by indirect procedures (F, R _Fr , and R _Fs ) should be used with caution for climate change analysis, despite they are used for practical purposes considering they are based on easily available information.     

Spatial and temporal patterns of the mean annual precipitation at decadal time scale in southern Italy (Calabria region)

Mean annual precipitation variability at decadal time scale over a southern Italy area (Calabria) was investigated to quantify the spatial and temporal patterns. A multivariate approach has been applied to analyse spatial?Ctemporal (1921?C2000) data of annual precipitation. A nested isotropic linear model of coregionalization was fitted to the experimental variograms including three basic structures: a nugget effect, an exponential model and a spherical model. The correlation structure between the decades was analysed by applying principal component analysis at each spatial scale, and specific factors at each characteristic scale were cokriged and mapped. Two components were identified: the first is mainly linked to local factors, which could be identified by the orographic characteristics of the region, while the long range component could be related to large-scale factors, like for example the processes of the global atmospheric circulation. In addition, in order to obtain a better insight into the pattern of relatively dry or wet zones, a standardized relative difference was calculated. The results showed that the annual precipitation decreased during the period 1921?C2000 and the spatial distribution changed with an increase of dry areas.     

基于概率匹配的西南区域模式定量降水订正试验

利用2019年5-6月江西省气象站、水文站降水数据与江西省雷达估测降水产品（QPE）,采用多重网格变分分析方法（STMAS）,开展1 km×1 km逐小时气象、水文、雷达雨量信息融合试验,并对试验结果进行了分析评估。结果表明：三种来源的观测降水具有相似的空间分布特征,其强降水落区、降水分布形态高度一致;与观测降水相比,不同融合试验结果具有一致的变化趋势,但均存在一定程度的低估,而融合了水文站降水的试验结果,其低估程度明显改善;独立检验结果显示,融合了水文站降水的试验结果在各降水量级的准确性均有明显改进,其相关系数提高了9.2%,均方根误差和平均绝对误差分别降低了14.3%和12.1%;进一步融合水文站降水后,对不同地形条件下的降水融合效果均有显著改善,海拔高度在800 m以上的地区,其相关系数提高8.8%,均方根误差降低14.1%。

     

Changes in the anomalies of extreme temperature anomalies in the 20th century at Swiss climatological stations located at different latitudes and altitudes

Summary  The extreme values of a particular climatological variable determine the thresholds of vulnerability of different environmental systems. Extremes of temperature, beyond a given threshold, may exert irreversible damage on ecosystems, for example, while winds exceeding a given limit will have numerous impacts on vegetation and human infrastructure. The results of the present study highlight the change in the seasonal temperature limits at different latitudes and altitudes in Switzerland. Winter minimum temperatures at high altitude sites and summer maximum temperatures at low altitude sites in the north, in particular, have changed considerably during the last decade. Since annual extremes are seen to occur either during summer or winter, and much less during the intermediate seasons of spring and autumn, the change in summer and winter extremes are likely to have a significant impact on a number of biospheric, cryospheric, hydrologic and managed systems. Received October 4, 2000 Revised February 1, 2001