Spatial change detection of glacial lakes in the Koshi River Basin,the Central Himalayas

Region warming and the resulting ongoing deglaciation have led to the formation of new glacial lakes and expansion of existing glacial lakes. For giving an overview of the distribution and expansion of glacial lakes in the Koshi River Basin (KRB) between the Central China and Nepal Himalayas in the recent 10 years, this paper aimed to analyze and assess recent spatial variability of glacial lake changes in the KRB, Central Himalayas using two inventory data of glacial lake in 2001 and 2010 in Nepal and Landsat TM/ETM+ data for the 1990s, 2000 and 2009 on the Chinese section of the KRB. The datasets show that there are 1,203 glacial lakes with a total area of 118.54 km² in the KRB in 2009, in which 599 lakes are mapped in the Nepalese section of the KRB with a total of 25.92 km², and 604 lakes in the Chinese section of the KRB with a total area of 92.62 km². From 2000 to 2009, the total number of glacial lakes decreased from 1,668 to 1,203 with a reduction of 45.86 % in the KRB, whereas the total lake areas expanded by 10.60 % (i.e. 0.72 km²/a), from 111.35 to 118.54 km² between 2000, 2001 and 2009, 2010. Especially, 17 lakes are identified as potentially dangerous glacial lakes (PDGLs) by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) on the Nepalese section of the KRB in 2009. In the same period, 23 PDGLs are also identified on the Chinese section of the KRB and the total area increased by 77.46 % (i.e. 0.37 km²/a) from 1990 to 2010 and the expansion rate is significantly higher than 39 % (0.19 km²/a) of non-PDGLs. Therefore, there is a need for promoting the awareness of the hazard potential of glacier lakes to support proper planning of mitigation and adaptation strategies in this context.     

Climate change-induced hazards and local adaptations in agriculture: a study from Koshi River Basin,Nepal

Natural Hazards - Changes in climate, associated hazards, local adaptations in agriculture, and socioeconomic factors affecting adaptation were investigated using data from a large survey of 2310...     

基于遥感和GIS的喜马拉雅山科西河流域冰湖变化特征分析

受全球气候变暖的影响, 冰川退缩, 冰湖数量增多和面积增大被认为指示气候变化的重要依据, 冰湖面积增大导致其潜在危险性增大. 因此, 研究冰湖的变化对于气候变化和冰湖灾害研究具有重要意义. 基于Landsat TM/ETM+遥感影像采用人工解译的方法, 获取了喜马拉雅山地区科西河流域1990年前后、2000年和2010年的冰湖数据, 并对冰湖面积>0.1 km²且一直存在的199个冰湖的面积和长度变化进行对比分析. 结果表明: 科西河流域内面积>0.1 km²的冰湖的面积呈现增加趋势, 1990年冰湖面积为73.59 km², 2010年冰湖面积增加至86.12 km². 科西河流域内喜马拉雅山南北坡冰湖变化存在差异, 喜马拉雅山北坡变化较大的冰湖主要分布在海拔4 800~5 600 m之间, 而南坡变化较大的冰湖主要分布在海拔4 300~5 200 m之间; 喜马拉雅山北坡的冰湖有65%的冰湖表现扩张, 且扩张冰湖的面积主要是由冰湖在靠近终碛垅的一端基本不发生变化, 而仅在靠近冰川一端发生变化贡献的; 喜马拉雅山南坡的冰湖有32%的冰湖变化表现扩张, 且扩张的冰湖面积主要来自于冰面湖扩张. 在科西河流域内, 位于喜马拉雅山北坡的冰湖平均变化速度略高于南坡的冰湖平均变化速度.     

Global strain rates in western to central Himalayas and their implications in seismic hazard assessment

The Himalayas has experienced varying rates of earthquake occurrence in the past in its seismo-tectonically distinguished segments which may be attributed to different physical processes of accumulation of stress and its release, and due diligence is required for its inclusion for working out the seismic hazard. The present paper intends to revisit the various earthquake occurrence models applied to Himalayas and examines it in the light of recent damaging earthquakes in Himalayan belt. Due to discordant seismicity of Himalayas, three types of regions have been considered to estimate larger return period events. The regions selected are (1) the North-West Himalayan Fold and Thrust Belt which is seismically very active, (2) the Garhwal Himalaya which has never experienced large earthquake although sufficient stress exists and (3) the Nepal region which is very seismically active region due to unlocked rupture and frequently experienced large earthquake events. The seismicity parameters have been revisited using two earthquake recurrence models namely constant seismicity and constant moment release. For constant moment release model, the strain rates have been derived from global strain rate model and are converted into seismic moment of earthquake events considering the geometry of the finite source and the rates being consumed fully by the contemporary seismicity. Probability of earthquake occurrence with time has been estimated for each region using both models and compared assuming Poissonian distribution. The results show that seismicity for North-West region is observed to be relatively less when estimated using constant seismicity model which implies that either the occupied accumulated stress is not being unconfined in the form of earthquakes or the compiled earthquake catalogue is insufficient. Similar trend has been observed for seismic gap area but with lesser difference reported from both methods. However, for the Nepal region, the estimated seismicity by the two methods has been found to be relatively less when estimated using constant moment release model which implies that in the Nepal region, accumulated strain is releasing in the form of large earthquake occurrence event. The partial release in second event of May 2015 of similar size shows that the physical process is trying to release the energy with large earthquake event. If it would have been in other regions like that of seismic gap region, the fault may not have released the energy and may be inviting even bigger event in future. It is, therefore, necessary to look into the seismicity from strain rates also for its due interpretation in terms of predicting the seismic hazard in various segments of Himalayas.     

Northern latitude chemical weathering rates: clues from the Mackenzie River Basin, Canada

The main scope of this study is to investigate parameters controlling chemical weathering rates for a large river system submitted to subarctic climate. More than 110 river water samples from the Mackenzie River system (northern Canada) have been sampled and analyzed for major and trace elements and Sr isotopic ratios in the dissolved phase. The three main morphological units are reflected in water chemistry. Rivers from the Canadian Shield are very dilute, dominated by silicate weathering (Millot et al., 2002), whereas the rivers of the Rocky and Mackenzie Mountains as well as the rivers of the sedimentary Interior Platform are dominated by carbonate weathering and are SO₄ rich. Compared to the rivers of the Mackenzie and Rocky Mountains, the rivers of the interior plains are organic, silica, and Na rich and constitute the dominant input term to the Mackenzie River mainstream. Rivers of the Canadian Shield area do not significantly contribute to the Mackenzie River system. Using elemental ratios and Sr isotopic ratios, a mathematical inversion procedure is presented that distinguishes between solutes derived from silicate weathering and solutes derived from carbonate weathering. Carbonate weathering rates are mostly controlled by runoff, which is higher in the mountainous part of the Mackenzie basin. These rates are comparable to the carbonate weathering rates of warmer areas of the world. It is possible that part of the carbonate weathering is controlled by sulfide oxidative weathering, but its extent remains difficult to assess. Conversely to what was stated by Edmond and Huh (1997), overall silicate weathering rates in the Mackenzie basin are low, ranging from 0.13 to 4.3 tons/km²/yr (Na + K + Ca + Mg), and confirm the negative action of temperature on silicate weathering rates for river basins in cold climates. In contrast to what has been observed in other large river systems such as the Amazon and Ganges Rivers, silicate weathering rates appear 3 to 4 times more elevated in the plains than in the mountainous headwaters. This contradicts the “Raymo hypothesis” (Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992). Isotopic characterization of suspended material clearly shows that the higher weathering rates reported for the plains are not due to the weathering of fine sediments produced in the mountains (e.g., by glaciers) and deposited in the plains. Rather, the relatively high chemical denudation rates in the plains are attributed to lithology (uncompacted shales), high mechanical denudation, and the abundance of soil organic matter derived from incomplete degradation and promoting crystal lattice degradation by element complexation. The three- to fourfold factor of chemical weathering enhancement between the plains and mountains is similar to the fourfold factor of enhancement found by Moulton et al. (2000) between unvegetated and vegetated watershed. This study confirms the negative action of temperature on silicate weathering for cold climate but shows that additional factors, such as organic matter, associated with northern watersheds are able to counteract the effect of temperature. This acceleration by a factor of 4 in the plains is equivalent to a 6°C increase in temperature.     

近15a喜玛拉雅山中段波曲流域冰川和冰湖变化

西藏聂拉木县波曲流域内分布有大量的冰川和冰湖,通过对2000/2001年度遥感数据解译并与1987年的数据对比,发现近15 a来该流域内的冰川面积、冰湖数量和面积等均发生了巨大的变化,结果表明:冰川总面积减小了20%,>0.020 km²的冰湖数量增加了11%,冰湖面积增加了47%.其中位于西夏邦马峰东侧的嘎龙错和扛西错最为典型,面积分别增加了104%和118%.2005年夏季野外考察对以上资料进行了核实.在全球气候变暖的趋势下,预计该流域内的冰川面积将进一步缩小,冰湖数量在小幅增加后将会出现大规模的冰湖溃决,导致严重的泥石流灾害.     

Snowmelt runoff assessment and prediction under variable climate and glacier cover scenarios in Astore River Basin,Western Himalayas

Climate change is expected to have a significant impact on the Himalayan region, which may ultimately affect the water security and agriculture productivity in the region. Investigations of hydrologic regimes and their linkage to climatic trends are therefore gaining importance to reduce vulnerability of growing implications in the region. In the present study, the eWater source software implementation of GR4JSG snow melt model was used for snow melt runoff modeling of the Astore river basin, western Himalayas. The model calibration and validation indicated a close agreement between the simulated and observed discharge data. The scenario of 0.9 °C increase in temperature indicated 33% rise in the river discharge, while an increase of 10% in precipitation may exaggerate the river flows by 15%. The scenario of 100% increase in glaciated area showed 41% increase in the Astore river discharge. On the other hand, reduction of 50% glacier cover may result in 34% decline in the river discharge, while 0% glacier coverage may reduce the river discharges by 49% from that of the base year 2014. It is essential to develop a long-term water resource monitoring process and adapt water management systems taking into account the socio-economic and ecological complexities of the region.     

Detrital transport of metals by glaciers, an example from the Pinchi Mine, central British Columbia

 Abundant cinnabar (HgS) mineralization is associated with the Pinchi Fault in central British Columbia. Two formerly producing mercury mines have been developed on this fault: Pinchi and Bralorne Takla. The mercury content of till (a sediment type directly deposited by glaciers) in the area of this fault is primarily controlled by the occurrence of cinnabar mineralization in bedrock and the direction of ice flow. Cinnabar-bearing bedrock was eroded by glaciers, transported in the direction of ice flow, and deposited "down-ice" from its source. An example of such a dispersal train is documented for the Pinchi Mine area where mercury ore was transported over a distance of 12 km, as measured in the clay-sized fraction (< 0.002 mm) of till, and could have been transported over 24 km according to heavy mineral concentrates (specific gravity >3.3) of this same sediment. Antimony, chromium, and nickel dispersal trains were also detected in the region. These data indicate that natural glacial processes can result in the "mobilization" of metals in the surficial environment, a factor which has to be considered at mine sites in glaciated terrain, where mine reclamation and remediation measures are now required. Received: 31 October 1996 · Accepted: 27 May 1997     

Evaluation of water quality trends in the Maroon River Basin,Iran, from 1990 to 2010 by WQI and multivariate analyses

This research aimed to investigate the long-term spatiotemporal changes of surface water quality of the Maroon River by implementing Water Quality Index (WQI) and multivariate statistical analyses such as non-metric multidimensional scaling and cluster analyses, as complementary tools to investigate spatial variations in water quality parameters and also delineate areas in terms of water quality conditions in the period under study. The other purposes of this study were to evaluate the physicochemical properties of the Maroon River water and assess the effects of each water quality parameter on the WQI values. Relationship between quality scale of hydrochemical parameters and the resulting WQI scores was determined employing linear regression analysis. Moreover, the suitability of water quality was evaluated for irrigation purposes using conventional indices, electrical conductivity (EC), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and percent sodium (Na%). The monitoring stations were placed in high and very high categories according to the assessment of irrigation water quality with EC. Considering WQI, the upper (S1, S2, and S4) and lower (S3, S5, and S6) monitoring stations of the Maroon River distributed in category C3 (high salinity) and C4–C5 (very high salinity), respectively. The findings of WQI presented an increasing trend from upstream toward downstream in the Maroon River. The findings of the linear regression analysis showed no significant correlation between WQI scores with pH and SO₄ ^2? concentrations even though the relationship is weak. These results suggest that pH and SO₄ ^2? concentrations could be the secondary driving parameters behind the variations in WQI scores. It can be inferred that the Maroon River water is appropriate for irrigation based on Na% and SAR. However, it also exhibits high EC. Therefore, for mitigating the adverse impacts of polluted water authors recommend multidimensional management practices such as transferable discharge permit programs in the study area.     

Regional representation of glaciers in Chandra Basin region,western Himalaya,India

Hamtah and Chhota Shigri are two nearby, well monitored glaciers of western Himalaya, lying in the same climatic zone and driven by the same climatic conditions. In this study, topographical characteristics of both the glacier have been explored to understand the role of topography in controlling the glacier response. Further, their topographical characteristics and possible response towards climatic variations have been compared with each other and also with that of the other glaciers in the basin to find out the suitability of these two glaciers to be considered as representative of the region. Multi sensor and multi temporal remote sensing data have been used to carry out to fulfill the objectives. It is found that being in the same climatic zone, the mean accumulation area ratio of Chhota Shigri is 54% and Hamtah is 11% between 1980 and 2014. In comparison to Hamtah, Chhota Shigri glacier has a small upslope area, low compactness ratio indicating the ability of the glacier to receive direct precipitation and solar radiation. The analysis revealed that the Chhota Shigri glacier has a closer resemblance with the other glaciers in the region than Hamtah glacier. Also, the topographical settings of Chhota Shigri glacier are suitable for recording and reflecting year-to-year climatic variations.     

1971-2010年西藏怒江流域冷暖冬的时空变化分析

根据暖冬等级国家标准, 参照单站、 区域暖冬等级标准, 确定了单站和区域冷冬等级, 在此基础上分析了1971-2010年西藏怒江流域9个站冷、 暖冬事件的气候变化特征. 结果表明: 近40 a怒江各站冬季平均气温表现出一致的增温趋势, 增幅为0.31~0.77 ℃·(10a)^-1, 以那曲增幅最大, 察隅升幅最小; 1991-2010年气温快速上升为0.81~2.36 ℃·(10a)^-1. 在10 a际尺度上, 2000年代是近40 a最暖期, 与1970年代比较各站偏高1.0~2.5 ℃. 区域暖冬指数也呈显著升高趋势, 线性趋势为19.6%·(10a)^-1, 明显高于东北、 华北、 西北、 华南等地. 流域单站暖冬频率为40%~58%, 强暖冬频率为15%~33%; 区域暖冬共发生21次(年), 主要出现在2000年代, 其中强暖冬事件共发生过9次(年); 2001、 2006和2009年是过去40 a中范围最广、 强度最大的暖冬. 流域单站冷冬频率为15%~28%, 强冷冬频率为5%~13%; 区域冷冬共发生了8次(年), 以1990年代居多, 其中区域强冷冬事件出现了4次(年); 1983年是40 a中范围最广、 强度最大的冷冬, 1978年次之.     

Spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameters in the Velika Morava River Basin,central Serbia

The reported study includes analysis of 14 physico-chemical parameters of alluvial groundwater based on data collected from 26 piezometers in the Velika Morava River Basin from 2004 to 2014. Eleven of the parameters were assessed applying hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis to examine the spatial distribution, identify the main processes in groundwater variations and segregate the dominant sampling sites based on the characteristic parameters. A Piper diagram shows that the studied alluvial groundwaters are predominantly of the Ca²⁺–HCO₃^? type (67.3%) and to a lesser extent of the mixed Ca²⁺–Mg²⁺–HCO₃^? type (21.6%). Hierarchical clustering results in four clusters depending on the similarities of the hydrochemical parameters. Principal component analysis explains 65.4% of total variance with PC1 (32.5% variance), PC2 (19.8% variance) and PC3 (13.1% variance). A comparative analysis reveals that the main processes responsible for the hydrochemical composition of groundwater in the Velika Morava alluvion are carbonate dissolution-anthropogenic pressure, feldspar weathering and migration caused by river–aquifer interaction. Considerable loading of the alluvial groundwater caused by a complex geologic framework, natural factors and human activities in the river basin contributed to the segregation of six dominant sampling sites. The obtained results can be very useful in the development of an optimal spatial plan for groundwater monitoring, focusing on increasing the density of the national monitoring network and frequency of assessing alluvial groundwater on the dominant sampling sites (from annual to seasonal).     

1951-2010年洮河流域水文气象要素变化的时空特征

采用M-K检验、小波分析和Sen斜率等方法, 对1951-2010年60 a来洮河流域不同地理-生态区间水文气象要素变化的时空特征进行了综合研究.结果表明: 洮河流域水文气象要素呈现多种周期不同尺度的振荡特性, 气温、降水和径流的年代际变化周期以9~13 a和2~5 a最为常见.气温从1990年代中期开始明显上升, 突变的时间北部略早于南部, 西部明显迟于东部;除上游草原牧区外, 降水总体于1990年代初期开始减少;受降水变化影响, 流域河川径流量1990年代发生明显减少.过去60 a, 洮河流域气温以0.18 ℃·(10a)^-1的速率增温;降水以0.03 mm·(10a)^-1的速率减少;河川径流量以11.36 mm·(10a)^-1的速率减小;近30 a来洮河流域以0.63 ℃·(10a)^-1的速率增温, 降水以8.86 mm·(10a)^-1的速率减少, 径流以21.00 mm·(10a)^-1的速率减少.降水和径流变化在不同时期和不同生态-地理区间差异明显, 与区域气候和下垫面因素变化所致的流域能水通量过程的变异有关.     

Managed Retreat of Saline Coastal Wetlands: Challenges and Opportunities Identified from the Hunter River Estuary,Australia

We analyse the potential impacts of sea-level rise on the management of saline coastal wetlands in the Hunter River estuary, NSW, Australia. We model two management options: leaving all floodgates open, facilitating retreat of mangrove and saltmarsh into low-lying coastal lands; and leaving floodgates closed. For both management options we modelled the potential extent of saline coastal wetland to 2100 under a low sea-level rise scenario (based on 5 % minima of SRES B1 emissions scenario) and a high sea-level rise scenario (based on 95 % maxima of SRES A1FI emissions scenario). In both instances we quantified the carbon burial benefits associated with those actions. Using a dynamic elevation model, which factored in the accretion and vertical elevation responses of mangrove and saltmarsh to rising sea levels, we projected the distribution of saline coastal wetlands, and estimated the volume of sediment and carbon burial across the estuary under each scenario. We found that the management of floodgates is the primary determinant of potential saline coastal wetland extent to 2100, with only 33 % of the potential wetland area remaining under the high sea-level rise scenario, with floodgates closed, and with a 127 % expansion of potential wetland extent with floodgates open and levees breached. Carbon burial was an additional benefit of accommodating landward retreat of wetlands, with an additional 280,000 tonnes of carbon buried under the high sea-level rise scenario with floodgates open (775,075 tonnes with floodgates open and 490,280 tonnes with floodgates closed). Nearly all of the Hunter Wetlands National Park, a Ramsar wetland, will be lost under the high sea-level rise scenario, while there is potential for expansion of the wetland area by 35 % under the low sea-level rise scenario, regardless of floodgate management. We recommend that National Parks, Reserves, Ramsar sites and other static conservation mechanisms employed to protect significant coastal wetlands must begin to employ dynamic buffers to accommodate sea-level rise change impacts, which will likely require land purchase or other agreements with private landholders. The costs of facilitating adaptation may be offset by carbon sequestration gains.     

Morpho-hypsometric evolution of the Karuvannur River Basin,a tropical river in central Kerala,southwestern peninsular India

An integrated morphometric and hypsometric analysis coupled with asymmetric factor used as a proxy for the landscape evolution of the catchment of Karuvannur River. The present study area is a sixth order tropical river in the central Kerala which supplies water and sediments to the Vembanad-Kol Ramsar site. The Karuvannur River Basin (KRB) has been divided into six sub-watersheds (SW). Morphometric parameters (areal, linear, and relief) and hypsometric and asymmetric factors are measured for the delineation of morphotectonic evolution of the area. High values of drainage density, texture, ruggedness number, and hypsometric integral with relatively high volume of leftover rocks in the basin in SW-II and SW-III compared to the entire basin of KRB imply that these two sub-watersheds have been influenced by the tectonic activities. Further, detailed asymmetric data indicated that these two watersheds are tilted in opposite direction. It may be the result of reactivation of Precambrian fault/lineament in recent past. This has been supported by recent tremors and neotectonic studies in Kerala. Moreover, detailed field evidence along with google imagery revealed that the entire basin is a part of regional anticline associated with PCSZ. Geomorphic response to disturbance will produce a sensible, recognizable response; it can be well studied in rivers through detailed study of their sensitivity or behavioral changes. Rivers have an enormous capacity to absorb perturbation and these types of studies are essential for identifying/measuring tectonic activities, sediment diffusion, surface runoff in a drainage basin, and as an important tool for target oriented micro watershed management.     

Chemistry of perennial springs of Bhetagad watershed: a case study from central Himalayas,India

A field study was conducted to assess the location and the seasonal variation in physicochemical parameters of springs (outlets of underground water channels) of Bhetagad watershed of Uttaranchal hills, India. Traditionally, spring water is used for multiple purposes in this region. The average population density of the watershed is 366 persons km^?2, distributed within an altitudinal range of 1,090–2,060 m a.m.s.l. and 23.52 km² area. Twelve springs, in three different land uses e.g. pine forest, rainfed agriculture near settlements and irrigated agriculture near settlements were monitored in the winter (January), summer (June) and monsoon (August) during 1998 and 1999. The water quality parameters selected, in the present study are pH, EC, TDS, DO, free CO₂, total hardness, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, CO₃^2?, HCO₃^?, Cl^-, NO₃^? and SO₄^2? ions. Some springs in pine forests exhibit lower pH values than the permissible limit. Springs, with their location in agriculture and settlement, show slightly higher EC than the springs in pine forests. All the springs, near the irrigated agricultural land recorded higher nitrate ion concentration.     

喜马拉雅中段高压麻粒岩变质作用、地球化学与年代学

研究的高压麻粒岩发现于西藏亚东以北约40公里的(Zherger-La)、出露在藏南拆离系(STDS)主构造面下盘的高喜马拉雅结晶岩系中,是继喜马拉雅东西构造结的Nanga Barbat、Namjag Barwa和喜马拉雅中段Khatra & Marina地区、定结地区发现的榴辉岩或高压麻粒岩之后,在青藏高原上新近发现的高压麻粒岩.该麻粒岩呈岩片被包裹于花岗质片麻岩中.麻粒岩记录了两期变质作用,早期矿物组合为Grt+Cpx+Pl+Qz,属麻粒岩相变质产物,矿物成分分析显示早期矿物组合达到了平衡,并且没有表现成分扩散;后期矿物组合为Hbl+Pl+Bio或Opx+Pl,指示了较高温但相对压力较低的麻粒岩相退变变质作用,矿物成分分析和结构显示了退变作用没有达到变质平衡.显微结构可以观察到多组变质反应Grt+Cpx+Qtz=Opx+Pl,Grt+Qtz=Opx+Pl,Grt+Cpx+L=Hbl+Pl+Bio+Mt,和Cpx+L=Hbl+Mt.根据矿物平衡关系,利用Grt-Cpx温度计和Grt-Cpx-Pl-Qz压力计估算的早期变质作用温压为T=780～850℃,P=12～15kbar,相对应的地温梯度16℃～18℃/km.借用Hbl-Pl温度计和A1tot in Hbl压力计估算的晚期变质作用温压为T=730～760℃;P=4～6kbar,相当的地温梯度为38℃～50℃/km.变质作用P-T演化呈等温降压轨迹,指示麻粒岩地体从增厚(或俯冲)地壳到减薄增温(或部分熔融)地壳,进而被快速剥露地表的构造过程.初步的地球化学结果表明高压麻粒岩原岩可能相当于大陆拉斑玄武岩.麻粒岩锆石SHRIMP年代学有两组相对集中的年龄分别为98±5 Ma(5 spots)和17.0±0.3 Ma(13 spots).高压麻粒岩的两期变质作用的温度都在700℃以上,略高于锆石U-Pb同位素体系计时封闭温度,推断17 Ma是高压麻粒岩变质后发生折返,随高喜马拉雅结晶岩系剥露冷却的年龄;98.4Ma的测年结果被推测是高压麻粒岩原岩形成的年龄.在喜马拉雅山,高压麻粒岩记录了类似增厚地壳到减薄地壳的转变一方面可能是地壳深部作用机制的转变,另一方面,这种机制与喜马拉雅南坡巨大的降雨量和去顶作用有密切关系,意义重大.     

Driving forces responsible for aeolian desertification in the source region of the Yangtze River from 1975 to 2005

The Yangtze River is the China’s longest river and the third-longest river in the world. The river’s source region in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is especially sensitive to global environmental change because of its high elevation and cold environment. Under the influence of global warming, aeolian desertified land has expanded rapidly in this area. To assess the trends in aeolian desertification from 1975 to 2005, remote-sensing and GIS technology were used to monitor the extent of aeolian desertification in 1975, 1990, 2000, and 2005. The data sources included Landsat multi-spectral scanner images acquired in 1975, Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) images acquired in 2000, and Thematic Mapper (TM) images acquired in 1990 and 2005. Images recorded between June and October were selected, when vegetation grew well, because aeolian desertified land was more easily recognized during this period. Thematic maps, including land use and geomorphologic maps, were used as supplementary data. Aeolian desertification maps (1:100000) were produced for each year from the Landsat images through visual interpretation. The area of aeolian desertified land increased by 2,678.43 km² from 1975 to 2005, accounting for 8.8% of the total area of aeolian desertified land in 1975, an increase of 89.28 km² a⁻¹. Increasing mean annual temperature and the combination of a dry, cold, and windy climate in winter and spring were mainly responsible for the expansion of desertified land.