Geomorphological aspects of the process of desertification in Western Sudan

Desertification involves several morphodynamic processes which serve as indicators of the highly complex process of desertification and thus play an important role in its monitoring. Ecological degradation triggers off and enhances these morphological activities, which are mainly processes of soil changes, soil erosion, and the transport and accumulation of soils. These alterations of relief and soil result in hydrological changes which have negative effects on land productivity. Both geomorphological and desertification processes are so interwoven that it becomes difficult to differentiate clearly between causes and effects. As the field studies tackled here have been carried out in the sandy regions of western Sudan, special attention is being paid to aeolian erosion and accumulation. Fluvial processes play only a subsidiary role in the processes of desertification there.     

Climatic changes,desertification and the Republic of Sudan

Meteorological data for a period of 30 to 50 years was analysed to ascertain the climatic changes in the Republic of Sudan. The study confirms that the temperatures are rising and rainfall declining. Rigorous analysis of relative humidity, clouds, rediation and evaporation also confirms the changing pattern, a trend which may accelerate environmental degradation and desertification in Sudan.The author acknowledges the assistance of Nadir Ahmad El-Agib in completing this study. He is also thankful to Dr. Ahmad El-Agib for his help in getting the Meteorological data from Sudan.     

Urbanization and desertification in the Sudan with special reference to Khartoum

Urbanization-desertification interactions in the arid zones of the Sudan represent a challenge for future management planners. Desertification leads to a considerable movement into the towns, thereby encouraging the urbanization process. However, due to the large pull effect of large urban centres which are limited in number and unevenly distributed over the area, most of the migration is oriented towards them. This tendency is strengthened, furthermore, by the present planning trends of growth pole centres. The result is overcrowding, negative over-urbanization diseconomies and more pressure on the natural resources in the immediate hinterland, thus further accelerating the desertification process. Some examples are given in the paper to show how the rapid increase of urban population and the rapid growth of urban centres have reflected themselves in difficulties in procuring wood fuel or naturally grown raw materials for traditional and small urban industries. The specific example of Khartoum, the largest urban centre in the Sudan with the highest rate of growth is treated in detail to show how rapid urbanization processes would result in intensified desert conditions and how ecological interactions and effects would be faster and more serious in a more vulnerable ecological location.     

Combating famine by grain storage in Western Sudan

Traditional grain storage used to be an effective mechanism to combat famine in the rural areas of W Sudan. Of late, this mechanism has failed to function and a severe famine took place in 1984–1985. This paper endeavours to highlight this crisis, show the traditional methods of grain storage and point out to ways of retrieving grain storage systems to start again on a less vulnerable basis. An assessment of grain storage requirements under the new conditions where both market and subsistence economy are effective in rural areas is made for the different ecological zones of W Sudan.     

The agonies of displacement: Ethiopian women refugees in Khartoum,Sudan

Conclusion For the overwhelming majority of the Ethiopian refugees in urban Sudan, there seems to be no end to their plight. Their lives are in limbo. When they left their homeland most thought thei exile would be temporary. They sought temporary refuge only until the conditions at home improved and they might return in safety. Unfortunately, the conditions for their repatriation have never developed. Armed conflicts in Ethiopia still continue to rage unabated. the regime in power also continues to abuse fundamental human rights.Many of the refugees also thought they would have peace and security and, perhaps, a decent livelihood in their asylum home. These have not materialized either. The Sudan, faced with numerous problems, including civil war, drought, famine, huge external debt (in excess of $12 billion), open unemployment, and pervasive underemployment, is not even able to cope adequately with the basic needs of its own citizens, let along that of a refugee population of over a million. Worse, refugees are blamed for every problem from bread and water shortages to skyrocketing rents and have become convenient targets for harassment by the frustrated public.Others hoped for resettlement in another country. However, for the vast majority of refugees, resettlement opportunities elsewhere are virtually impossible to attin. The industrial countried are unwilling to grant asylum to large numbers of Third World refugees. These countries content that most Third World refugees are not victims of political persecution but simply migrants in search of better economoc opportunities. The few refugees to whom these countries are willing to grant asylum are those with the best qualifications: the young, the educated, and the highly skilled.As long as the current status quo in Ethiopia remains unaltered, voluntary repatriation is highly unlikelt. On the contrary, one sees more and more evidence in the country of continued uprooting of masses of people from their homes and land. It is sad that, goven the immense contradictions in the country, the possibility of negotiated solutions to the wars and a return to democracy is nowhere in sight. The plight of hundred of thousands of innocent women and men will not be solved anytime in the immediate future of them to return home in safety, peace, and dignity. For most of these refugees the future is uncertain, probably unpleasant, possibly bleak.     

The role of rural industries in the arid and semi-arid areas of the Sudan

The aim of the study is to evaluate the socio-economic contribution made by traditional industries in the arid and semiarid areas of the Sudan, and to assess their environmental impact. Two study areas, known for their diversified rural industries, have been chosen: the Mahmiya-Damar area as an example of riverine settlements, an non-riverine example of the Butana area (mainly El Subbagh region) in E Sudan.Rural industries in both areas were surveyed through direct interviews. A complete survey was made of the independent small industrial units, which are usually located in the markets, whilst a random-sample house survey was also carried out in both areas. In both areas the industries found have been grouped into seven classes.The survey, limited as it was in the residential areas, nonetheless revealed certain important characteristics of the production, distribution, and labour structure of the industries. It also revealed certain problems and difficulties which may lead in the end to a reduction of their role in these regions.     

Analysis of soil biogeochemical characteristics in the process of karst rocky desertification

The sampling method of karst soil is always the one used for non-karst area. However, if the samples can represent the plot, it still needs further investigation due to high degree of spatial variability of karst soil. The study results of soil from the Maolan karst virgin forest in Guizhou Province elucidated that only the surface area-weighted samples could represent plot soils in the karst ecosystem. The remediation of karst rocky desertification has currently become a national issue, but soil degradation research on rocky desertification genesis types and processes is still insufficient. Soil physical, chemical, biological characteristics and enzymes activities from plots of different rocky desertification genesis types and grades in the Cha＇eryan catchment in the Huajiang Gorge area, Guizhou, were studied. The results showed that woodcutting and land reclamation influenced soil biogeochemical characteristics, and the influence of different disturbing ways was huge. The author suggested a soil degradation index system which could illustrate the rocky desertification genesis type and extent. The degraded modes of woodcutting and reclamation sequence were different, both had no synchronism with rocky desertification grades divided by current landscape index. Only soil of serious grade degraded evidently in wood cutting sequence. On the contrary, soils of slight, medium and serious grades degraded evidently in the reclamation sequence.     

Deflation processes and their role in desertification of the southern Pre-Balkhash deserts

Deflation processes are important in arid environments such as deserts. The deserts of Kazakhstan mostly cover lowlands and extend from the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea to the piedmonts of the Tien-Shan Mountain. Desert areas are also major source areas of dust/sand storm activities. We considered deflation processes in the southern Pre-Balkhash deserts. In Kazakhstan, desertification processes due to wind erosion in the form of dust/sand storms were observed in semi-desert and desert landscapes. During analysis of numerous long-term meteorological data and cartographic materials, we revealed the sand movement directions which allow prediction of future potential sand movement patterns or processes in southern Pre-Balkhash deserts. The Taukum, Moiynkum deserts, Ili river deltas and valleys, and southern coastal of Lake Balkhash are most prone to dust/sand storms. The most frequent storms were observed in the Bakanas weather station (Ile river valley). Sand/dust transport occurs mainly in the east, south-east north-east direction in the southern Pre-Balkhash deserts. The high amount of sand transportation was observed at the Kuigan weather station; low amounts were encountered at the Naimansuiek weather station. The amount of airborne sand/dust varies in accordance with the general and local meteorological features, the complexity of relief forms, soil conditions and properties, lithology, and various contributions of the human activities. Thus, our study on deflation processes in the southern Pre-Balkhash deserts has great importance towards aiding in the prediction and monitoring of dust/sand storms and movement patterns.     

The role of rural-rural migration as a survival strategy in the Sahelian zone of the Sudan —

Taking the example of Burush, N Darfur, Sudan, the authors analyse the role of migration as a survival strategy in the desertification-stricken Sahelian zone. It is being argued that the rual-rual migration plays a greater role than the rual-urban migration among the Berti ethnic group of northern Darfur. Their high mobility within their own area is part of their traditional economic pattern for coping with aridity and high rainfall variability     

Paleoclimatic implications of late quaternary lacustrine sediments in Western Nubia, Sudan

Owing to the hypercontinental location of Western Nubia, secular fluctuations of climate have been filtered and wet phases can be considered as representative of conditions throughout the southeastern Sahara. The study area is crossed by the 20-mm isohyet; between 9300 and about 4000 yr B.P., however, there were widespread lake and swamp environments with freshwater molluscs, ostracods, and diatoms, and a species-rich savanna mammal fauna. The center of the West Nubian Basin (approx. 18°N), an area of about 20,000 km², was occupied by a semiaquatic landscape which was situated at the same latitude as Paleolake Chad. From extensive lake carbonates up to about 4 m thick, a long-term rise of the groudwater table is inferred. Environments developed that now exist at about latitude 13°N. Radiocarbon dates from lake sediment sequences cluster between 30,000 and 21,000 yr B.P., indicating a Pleistocene wet phase. A gap in radiocarbon dates between 21,000 and 11,000 yr B.P. signals a phase of hyperaridity, similar to the present hyperarid phase, with eolian deflation and deposits of sand being the dominant forms of erosion and accumulation.     

川西前陆盆地天然气成藏过程

川西前陆盆地具有丰富的天然气资源,发育上三叠统巨厚的煤系烃源岩,以生气为主,并发育多套储盖组合。天然气成因类型主要是煤成气,目前的气田分布主要受古隆起、沟通下部烃源岩和上部储集层的隐伏断层以及储集条件的控制。川西前陆盆地具有多期成藏、燕山期或喜山期聚集、喜山期调整等特点。来自上三叠统煤系源岩的天然气聚集主要在燕山期,形成原生气藏或下生上储型气藏;后经过喜山期的逆冲作用,对浅层储集层进行改造,产生的断裂沟通深部气藏与浅层圈闭,在对深层(主要在上三叠统)原生气藏进行改造的同时形成浅层(侏罗系)次生气藏。     

Variations of nutrient element contents of plants and soils in the process of karst rocky desertification

The present research on karst rocky desertification is mainly focused on qualitative analysis and obviously lack of quantitative and successive mechanism studies. Currently, classification of rocky desertification grades mainly depends on ratio of rocky coverage or ratio of plant and soil coverage. The process of rocky desertification was divided into latent, slight, medium and serious grades without mention of soil degradation. The Cha＇eryan catchment in the Huajiang Gorge of Guizhou Province was selected as the research area in this paper. Soil basic physical characteristics, nutrient element contents of soil and plant were studied in the process of rocky desertification. The karst soil characteristics elucidated that the clay content was high, the contents of soil organic matter, nutrient element （except potassium and sodium）, available contents of elements （except of potassium） were also high; ashes of plants were rich in calcium and nitrogen, and poor in iron, zinc, potassium and phosphorus. Meanwhile, the contents of plant ashes showed a significant positive relationship with calcium content of plant. There were no clear relations between soil degradation and succession of rocky desertification according to current classification standard. Soil particle size distribution, specific gravity, soil organic matter content, total and available nutrient element contents did not vary with the succession of rocky desertification.     

人为因素在西藏中部沙漠化过程中作用的初步分析

科学分析人为因素在沙漠化过程中的作用是沙漠化研究的关键问题之一。研究普遍认为,人为因素是当前沙漠化的主要原因,滥垦、滥牧、滥樵是其主导因素,其中尤以滥垦的作用为主。现以西藏中部雅鲁藏布江流域为研究区域,探讨人为因素在沙漠化过程中的作用。回土地沙漠化现状区内有沙漠化土地314．IX104m2,占区域面积13．l％,其中轻度、中度和重度沙漠化土地分别为133．9X104m2,164．4X104m2和15．8x104m2。区内沙漠化土地分布广泛且又相对集中,并造成了多方面危害,计有2．88X104m2耕地、331．28X10‘hln‘草地、462个村庄、292．3kin公路、186．0k     

云南红河州石漠化演变过程及其综合治理成效

为了阐明云南红河州石漠化演变特点和综合治理成效,本文以2005年、2011年和2016年TM影像为基本数据源,以县市为单元,通过调查收集、实地验证、定位监测等手段,获得了云南省红河州3个时期石漠化演变及治理成效数据。结果发现:（1）12年间,红河州石漠化土地面积从2005年的3 267.49 km2减少到2016年的2 345.08 km2,生态环境持续好转,石漠化程度总体减轻;（2）红河州石漠化土地主要分布于中西北部的县市,各县市12年间不同监测时段石漠化演变存在差异性,极强度和强度石漠化土地面积急剧减少,中度和轻度石漠化有所增加;（3）2005—2011年石漠化减轻速率明显大于2011—2016年,石漠化土地面积减少比较明显;（4）研究区的石漠化综合治理成效明显,且12年间各县市石漠化演变方向和速率具有复杂性和多变性,治理效果短期之内并不一定明显,而是需要相对漫长的时间方能显现出来,若措施不当,极易重新发生并加剧演变。      

The application of remote sensing and structural analysis in groundwater exploration in basement terrains, Darfur region, Western Sudan

Darfur region is one of the most vulnerable areas in Sudan that suffer from shortage in water supply. The objective of the current study is to utilize remote sensing techniques combined with the structural analysis to recognize the most potential fracture zones for groundwater occurrences in the hard rock terrains of Darfur region. The old ductile deformation features in Darfur region delineated from Landsat imageries are used for the structural analysis to determine and classify the fractures in the hard rock terrains of the region. Based on the structural analysis conducted in this study, Darfur region was divided into two domains—the western domain of the pre-Pan-African age that is affected by the two deformational phases (D1 and D2), and the eastern domain represented by the basement related to the Pan-African orogeny. The most potential fractures in the western domain are in the NW–SE and NE–SW trends that classified as extensional and release open fractures for the deformations D1 and D2. In the eastern domain, the main potential fractures for groundwater occurrence are in E–W and N–S directions that are classified as extensional and release open fractures of the deformation D3. From the results of the structural analysis, the main potential fracture systems in Darfur region trend are NW–SE, NE–SW, and E–W directions. The intersections of these fracture systems are the most promising targets for drilling, with consideration of the topography, the rates of recharge, and the underlying geology. The geophysical data and boreholes information in Zalingei and north of El Geneina areas in West Darfur confirm the results obtained from remote sensing data and structural analysis, in which the NW–SE, NE–SW, and E–W fractures trends are the most potential fractures in Darfur region.     

Qualitative interpretation of remotely sensored data as a key to mapping vegetation patterns in the Western Sudan

Data capabilities of satellites remote sensor systems are briefly discussed. Monthly remotely sensored data of NIMBUS 3 meteorological satellite over parts of the Sudan, West of Lake Chad in Africa, using the HRIR — High Resolution Infra Red Radiometer (sensing between 0.7–1.3 u wavelength) are used to study the monthly shifts in the vegetation boundaries for this area. These shifts are shown to be caused by changes in soil moisture content which is controlled by the prevailing meteorological conditions in the area during the months.     

Sedimentary Basins in the Western White Nile, Sudan, as Indicated by a Gravity Survey

An academic geophysical research as a regional gravity survey was made during 1994 in the Western White Nile to infer the shallow crustal structures in the area. The result of the survey was compiled as a Bouguer anomaly map with a contour interval of 2 ×10-5m/s2. It is found that the negative residual anomalies are related to the Upper Cretaceous sediments (Nubian Sandstone Formation) filling all depressions in the Basement complex surface while the positive residual anomalies are attributed to the relatively shallow or outcropping Basement rocks and the steep gravity gradients are resulting from the sharp contacts between the sedimentary infill and the Basement rocks. To define the geological structures in the area, 9 profiles were studied. For each of the profiles, measured and computed Bouguer gravity anomalies, crustal density model, subsurface geology evaluation were performed. A G-model computer program was applied in the gravity modeling, which is based on the line-integral method of gravity computation. A geological/structural map was proposed showing inferred sedimentary basins, faulting troughs and uplifted Basement block and tectonic trends. The basins are believed to be fault-controlled which developed by extensional tectonics (pull-apart mechanism). As for the mechanism and cause of faulting, the area is considered as a part of the Central Sudan rift system which had been subjected to several tectonic events since Early Cambrian to Tertiary times which resulted in the formation of several fracture systems associated with block subsidence, rifting and basin formation.     

The extent of desertification on Saudi Arabia

Desertification is the process that turns productive deserts into non-productive deserts as a result of poor land-management. Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting wild species, domestic animals, agricultural crops and humans. The reduction in plant cover that accompanies desertification leads to accelerated soil erosion by wind and water. South Africa is losing approximately 300–400 million tons of topsoil every year. As vegetation cover and soil layer are reduced, rain fall impact and run-off increases. This paper discusses the extent of desertification, its potential threat to sustained irrigated agriculture and possible measures adopted to control ongoing desertification processes to minimize the loss of agricultural productivity in an arid country such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.