Numerical simulation of the origin of red sandstone and Cu accumulation in pore solutions

Interaction of igneous rocks with river (rain) water in the systems granite-water, basalt-water, and dunite-water open with respect to carbon dioxide (PCO₂ = 10^?4, 10^?3, and 10^?2 bar) and oxygen (PO₂ from 10^?81 to 10^?1 bar) is numerically simulated at 25 and 50°C and a mass ratio of water and rock R/W ≤ 10. Equilibrium simulations indicate that, first, the differences in the mineralogical composition of the transformation products of the igneous rocks are insignificant, and second, Cu extraction from minerals of the rocks is optimal at Eh from +200 to ?100 mV. Simulations of the systems with regard for the dissolution rates of minerals indicate that the chemical weathering time of the rocks is few hundred thousands years.     

Shear-zone geometries in experimentally deformed clays: the influence of water content,strain rate and primary fabric

In experimentally deformed clays, three parameters which influence the geometry of shear zones are water content, strain rate and the orientation of the shear zones with respect to any primary fabric. The shear zones are the main microstructures induced in the clays within the experimental conditions (triaxial compression at water contents between 20 and 35% w/w and strain rates between 10⁻⁴ and 10⁻⁸ s⁻¹). Small changes in water content produce a significant change in the appearance of shear zones: structures in wetter sediments are more complex and more numerous than those in drier sediments which tend to produce a small number of discrete planar shear zones. Strain rate is a far less important influence on shear-zone geometry. The orientation of the zones with respect to a primary fabric is also significant. Shear zones which are parallel to the fabric have a simpler geometry than zones which intersect the fabric at a high angle. Knowledge of these factors may help interpret the conditions within which shear zones formed in naturally-deformed soft sediments.     

Implications of pore space characteristics on diffusive transport in basalts and granites

A detailed characterization of the pore space is crucial for understanding of transport and element transfer in rocks. Here, the effect of differences in texture and content of secondary minerals on transport in pore systems was determined for two rocks of widespread occurrence, mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and granites. Pore space characteristics were analyzed by Hg-porosimetry, intrusion of a molten alloy, and synchrotron-based X-ray tomographic microscopy. For evaluating the role of pore space characteristics for the prediction of diffusive transport, data on porosity, and the effective diffusion coefficient (D _eff) were compared. Extended connective pore systems due to cracks and mineral dissolution are present in samples of both rocks, indicating high internal specific surface area. Uneven pore size distributions in altered MORB samples can be assigned to secondary minerals. Pore spaces determined by X-ray tomography, used to determine main direction of pores in the 3-D orthogonal system, suggest a slight anisotropy. In log–log plots, both rocks show roughly a linear dependence of D _eff for H₂O and compounds with comparable diffusivities (D₂O, monovalent cations, and anions) on porosity, but at same porosity D _eff is clearly higher in granitic than in basaltic samples. This difference is increasing with decreasing porosity, indicating that at low porosities the efficiency of element transport in basaltic samples is diminished, mainly inherited by the presence of small pores slowing down diffusion. The fact that diffusive transport in basaltic rocks is stronger dependent on porosity than in granitic rocks shows that also other rock characteristics such as pore size distribution and tortuosity of the pore network, highly affected by the alteration degree, can markedly affect transport and reactivity of pore solution.     

Effects of compaction moisture content on the shear strength of an unsaturated clay

This paper deals with the results of an experimental study carried out on compacted clay (PL=23%) to investigate the influence of compaction water content on the shear strength of the clay. For the measurement of shear strength parameters, direct shear tests were done on samples compacted at optimum moisture content (i.e. w=24%), at the dry side of optimum (i.e. w=18%, 20% and 22%) and at the wet side of optimum (i.e. w=26% and 28%). Thermocouple psychrometers were used for suction measurements and the suction-moisture content relationship of the soil sample was obtained. The trends for suction, angle of friction and cohesion, which change below and above optimum moisture content, were analyzed. The compacted clay behaves like a granular soil on the dry side of optimum water content; and a reduction in angle of friction and an increase in cohesion are observed as the compaction water contents approach the optimum value. The angle of friction is not affected by soaking, but after soaking cohesion of the sample reduces. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

地球化学模拟方法确定黏性土孔隙水化学组分

黏性土孔隙水的地球化学行为对于弱透水层水质水量研究、污染物在黏性土中的迁移、核废物储存场址评价及油气储层的盖层评价等均具有重要作用。受低渗透性限制,传统方法提取黏性土孔隙水非常困难。通过实验测定黏性土的物化特性,利用PHREEQC软件模拟计算了孔隙水组成。通过浸提实验,利用阴离子可通过孔隙度（50%总孔隙度）确定模型中孔隙水的Cl-和SO2-4含量;根据岩土的阳离子交换量及各离子的交换选择系数,矿物沉淀 溶解平衡,确定了孔隙水的主要化学组分。结果显示,模拟的孔隙水化学组分与压榨液（相当于原位孔隙水）相近,不同于浸提液。传统的浸提方法不可直接换算为孔隙水,受矿物可交换点阳离子的释出与矿物溶解影响,各离子含量被明显高估。模拟所得天津滨海区黏性土阳离子交换量为13.4~37.8 meq/100g土,可交换离子以Na、Mg、Ca为主。所得孔隙水为还原环境,且随着深度增加,还原性增强。模型中所选矿物均为平衡状态,溶液中可能存在的矿物大部分为未饱和或平衡状态,仅部分含Fe、Al矿物过饱和。由结果可知Fe含量偏高,对控制Fe元素的矿物需进一步精确测定。本方法在低渗透,超固结,低含水量介质的孔隙水相关研究中将发挥重要作用。     

The combined effect of clay and moisture content on the behavior of remolded unsaturated soils

The behavior of unsaturated clayey soil is highly influenced by the coupled interaction between water and clay content. Various aspects of the behavior of artificial clay–sand mixtures with variable water content were experimentally studied. Laboratory tests were utilized for the determination of consistency limits, the stress–strain relationship, strength parameters, hydraulic conductivity, and volume change characteristics for various combinations of water and clay content in soil mixtures.

Results presented for various clay–sand mixtures include: new normalized consistency limits; the combined effect of clay content and water content on the stress–strain relationship and on the strength parameters (c and φ); and the effect of clay content on hydraulic conductivity and swelling potential. The cohesion of clayey sand is found to increase with increasing water content to a certain limit, above which it decreases. The angle of internal friction for clayey sand is found generally to decrease with increasing water content. The degree of saturation is found to be better than the water content in explaining the strength behavior. The hydraulic conductivity sharply decreases with increasing clay content up to 40% beyond which the reduction becomes less significant. Simple empirical equations are proposed for predicting the swelling potential of clayey soils as a function of either the clay content or plasticity index.     

含水率及干密度对桂林红黏土抗剪强度的影响

为研究含水率及干密度对桂林红黏土抗剪强度的影响机理,进行了一系列控制含水率、干密度的直剪试验,建立含水率及干密度与抗剪强度的函数关系式。试验结果表明:同一干密度条件下,粘聚力、内摩擦角随含水率的增大整体呈下降趋势;在含水率相同时,随干密度增大,粘聚力减小,内摩擦角增大。分析表明:随含水率增大,具有“水稳定”性的胶结作用减弱,引起粘聚力降低;土中结晶态氧化铁含量高于胶结态时,内摩擦角增大,反之则降低。干密度增大时,重塑土因胶结键断裂后短时间无法恢复,使土颗粒的有效胶结面积的减少程度大于其增多的程度,引起粘聚力下降;干密度的增大会改变红黏土的微观结构模型,土中封闭孔隙的增多会导致粘聚力下降;土样微观结构性随干密度的增大而增强,使内摩擦角增大。      

高含水量冻粉黏土应力-应变曲线特性的试验研究

为研究青藏高原粉质黏土在高含水量条件下的应力-应变特性,本文对粉质黏土试样开展了较高含水量（15%,30%,50%）、不同温度（-2℃,-4℃）及围压（0.5,1.0,2.0,4.0 MPa）条件下的三轴剪切试验,分析了冻粉黏土试样应力-应变曲线的形态和强度规律,并给出了机理性解释。试验结果表明:冻粉黏土试样的应力-应变曲线均为应变软化型。高含水量下（50%）,试样的初始切线模量随围压增大呈幂函数形式增大。随着含水量的增大,试样的破坏过程渐呈脆性。试样强度方面,含水量的增大使冻粉黏土强度呈先减小后增大的规律,即存在一个强度最不利含水量。此最不利含水量主要是由于土骨架与冰相的组合使系统处于“最弱结构”以及各组分在承受荷载时的主次地位变换而引起的。围压增大使冻粉黏土强度线性降低,但降低幅度不大。结合Mohr-Coulomb准则的分析表明,黏聚力是冻粉黏土强度的主要指标,其值在最不利含水量时取得最小值,围压对冻粉黏土强度的削弱作用也在此时得以突显。     

Numerical modelling of the dynamic process of oil displacement by water in sandstone reservoirs with random pore structures

In order to maintain the production rate of a reservoir and improve the displacement efficiency, it is crucial to have an in-depth understanding of the process of oil displacement by water. However, with respect to the conceptualization of porous media of a reservoir, very limited efforts have been made to the pore structures inside the reservoirs. In this paper, the pore structures of a sandstone reservoir were generated by using the method of random growth algorithm. Based on the randomly generated model, a theoretical model to describe the dynamic process of oil displacement by water in the sandstone reservoir was established, and then corresponding numerical modelling was performed. The effects of the displacement velocity, the viscosity ratio of oil-water phase and the porosity of reservoirs on the displacement performance were also analyzed. Results show that due to a great difference in the viscosity between oil and water phases, the moving interface of water phase is not uniform, and the viscous fingering occurs, tending to proceed along the direction with the minimum flow resistance. There is not a linear relationship between the displacement velocity and the displacement efficiency. Too high displacement velocities do not lead to much better displacement efficiency, while a higher pressure drop is caused.Choosing a proper displacement velocity is indispensable in practical engineering. A lower oil-water viscosity ratio is more favorable to obtain high displacement efficiency. Under the present simulation conditions, when the viscosity ratio is 1.2, the displacement efficiency reaches 96.2% at a moderate Reynolds number. The porosity is not a sole factor determining the displacement performance. Even for the same porosity, the shape and length of preferential flow paths are different and randomly distributed,causing a different displacement performance. A large tortuosity tends to result in a low hydraulic conductivity and displacement efficiency.     

非饱和介质中热能传输及水分迁移的数值积分解

在给出非饱和介质热能-水分传输的耦合质量控制方程和基于Fourier热传导定律的热能平衡方程的基础上,对热能传输及水分迁移的基本特征和机理进行了分析。其中,考虑了温度势、吸力势和重力势的耦合作用影响。给出有热源时控制方程的简化形式,并对半无限体自由表面作用平面热源条件下介质内非稳态温度场、体积含水率分布场进行数值积分求解。利用这些解答给出常热源强度和变热源强度两种情况下,温度场随时间的变化特征以及水分迁移的演化过程,并分析了重力项对计算结果的影响。     

不同含水率砂岩单轴压缩力学特性及波速法损伤

为了探究不同含水率砂岩单轴压缩下力学特性及损伤变化情况,首先对5种不同含水率砂岩进行静态单轴压缩实验,获得其物理力学参数;而后利用超声波检测仪测量该5种不同含水率砂岩的波速,将该批次砂岩加载到80%峰值强度后卸载到0,测量此时砂岩声波波速,利用声波法定义损伤,研究含水率对砂岩损伤的影响。结果表明：单轴压缩下,砂岩的峰值强度及弹性模量随含水率升高逐渐降低,而峰值应变变化呈相反趋势;总功及弹性能随含水率增加而下降,耗散能随含水率增加而增大。实验前声波波速随含水率升高逐渐减小,实验后声波波速随含水率升高而下降,且下降趋势较实验前更迅速;砂岩的残余塑性变形和内部损伤均随含水率升高逐渐增大。研究结果可为现场岩石损伤测试提供依据。     

Numerical modeling of the flow and transport of radionuclides in heterogeneous porous media

This paper is concerned with numerical methods for the modeling of flow and transport of contaminant in porous media. The numerical methods feature the mixed finite element method over triangles as a solver to the Darcy flow equation and a conservative finite volume scheme for the concentration equation. The convective term is approximated with a Godunov scheme over the dual finite volume mesh, whereas the diffusion–dispersion term is discretized by piecewise linear conforming triangular finite elements. It is shown that the scheme satisfies a discrete maximum principle. Numerical examples demonstrate the effectiveness of the methodology for a coupled system that includes an elliptic equation and a diffusion–convection–reaction equation arising when modeling flow and transport in heterogeneous porous media. The proposed scheme is robust, conservative, efficient, and stable, as confirmed by numerical simulations.      

Seasonal deuterium excess in Nagqu precipitation: influence of moisture transport and recycling in the middle of Tibetan Plateau

The Cathedral of St. Giorgio in Ragusa Ibla like the majority of historic buildings in the Ragusa area is constructed mainly from locally outcropping calcarenite belonging to the Ragusa Formation. Through the years, the cathedral has undergone diverse restoration procedures using different protective products, the nature of which was determined by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Regardless of these interventions, the materials used today are still subject to diverse forms of alterations and degradation (alveolitation, differential degradation, decohesions, chromatic alterations and the formation of biological patinas correlated to lichen activity), which cause considerable damage to the façade. In this paper, three protective products were tested on the calcarenite of the Ragusa Formation taken from a quarry: a fluorurated elastomer, a fluorurated anionic polyurethane and linseed oil. The protective efficiency was determined, after undergoing UV radiation aging by means of capillary water absorption, porosimetric and colorimetric procedures. The results highlighted a good and persistent protective capability of both the elastomer and the fluorurated polyurethane, whereas, the linseed oil not only provoked strong chromatic variations but also quickly lost its hydro-repellant capacity with aging.     

长江中下游水沙数值模拟研究

根据长江中下游水沙运动特征,采用水动力学、河流动力学和数值模拟技术相结合的技术途径,建立了一、二维混合的非恒定流非均匀沙非平衡输沙的数学模拟模型,对长江中下游干流、河网区和洞庭湖水沙运动及其河床变形进行了数值模拟,并在水沙模拟的范围内着重对河网区内水沙动边界的处理、河网汊点分流分沙计算模式、动床阻力和河湖交换模式等问题进行了讨论,提出了解决问题的途径和技术处理方法.为了验证模型的适应性和有效性,采用1981年至1989年10年长江中下游水文资料对所建模型进行了检验,模拟结果较好地反映了长江中下游干流、河网区和洞庭湖水沙输运特征和河道冲淤的宏观效应.     

利用土中水分蒸发特性和微观孔隙分布规律确定SWCC残余含水率

残余含水率在非饱和土渗流理论、强度理论等方面都是重要的参数,然而土-水特征曲线（SWCC）试验测量时一般难以达到残余阶段,常常通过经验法（包括模型拟合法）估算残余含水率,方法的适用性值得论证。以武汉黏性土为研究对象,制备不同初始孔隙比试样,利用压力板仪测量SWCC,通过模型拟合的方法计算残余含水率;进行自然状态下水分蒸发试验,根据失水速率定义了临残时间,依据临残时间确定残余含水率;利用核磁共振技术研究微观孔隙分布特性,解释控制残余含水率大小的微观规律。研究结果表明：模型拟合的方法可估算残余含水率,但准确性与模型选择及残余含水率初步范围的限定直接相关;水分蒸发试验是确定残余含水率有效可行的直接方法;武汉黏性土微观孔隙呈三峰分布,残余含水率与第1峰之前的微观孔隙水分紧密相关,依据弛豫时间小于0.267 38 ms的T2谱面积可较为准确地预测残余含水率,对于其他土体该方法需要进一步论证与完善。     

Fractal analysis of the fabric changes in a consolidating clay

Electron microscopy and mercury intrusion porosimetry studies on the fabric of clays undergoing consolidation tests have indicated that the clays have pores of different sizes and shapes. After pressure is applied to the clay samples, the larger pores change in size and shape, with the smaller pores being relatively unaffected. The size of the pores and their distribution have been determined from mercury porosimeter tests. The shape of the pores and the changes they experience during the consolidation process have received only a qualitative evaluation from the photomicrographs obtained with the scanning electron microscope. In this study, a quantitative evaluation of the shape of the pores in a clay subjected to consolidation stresses is presented. This evaluation is done using fractal theory. Fractal theory employs the concept of fractal dimension to evaluate the shape (roughness) of closed profiles such as pores. The larger the fractal dimension, the rougher is the shape of a closed profile. The fractal dimension of a pore in a clay sample undergoing consolidation changed progressively from 1.4623 (very rough pore) to 0.9856 (very smooth pore). Thus, during consolidation, the pore, besides changing in size, also experienced a change in its degree of roughness. In addition, a theoretical analysis of the influence of the shape of the pores on the rate of water flow from a saturated clay undergoing consolidation is presented.     

An approach to characterisation of multi-scale pore geometry and correlation with moisture storage and transport coefficients in cement-stabilised soils

An experimental approach to the characterisation of the complex, multi-scale pore geometry in cement-stabilised soils is presented, in which the pore size distribution inclusively spans at least six orders of magnitude from ~3 nm up to >3 mm. These most likely result from the combined effects of granular inter-particle packing, clay/cement clothing and bridging effects, cement hydration and clay/cement pozzolanic reactions, and alteration of larger pore geometries as a result of solid mass mobilisation and transport following capillary wetting/drying regimes. Experimental data are presented and were obtained through a combination of X-ray computed tomography, mercury intrusion porosimetry and N₂ physisorption supported by ‘wet mode’ environmental scanning electron microscopy. Data strongly suggest that macropore/capillary pore size distribution, mean pore size, sorptivity and transport coefficients are a function of particle size distribution (when compaction energy is constant). Mesopore size distribution, which dominates hygric sorption/desorption behaviour, occurs within the clay/cement matrix and also appears to be strongly influenced by the particle size distribution of the granular phase. All other factors being equal, manipulation of granular particle size distribution can be used to engineer the hygric (vapour) and capillary (liquid) potentials and also the fluid transport coefficients of these materials.     

Numerical modeling of stress effects on solute transport in fractured rocks

The effects of stress/deformation on fluid flow and contaminant transport in fractured rocks is one of the major concerns for performance and safety assessments of many subsurface engineering problems, especially radioactive waste disposal and oil/gas reservoir fields. However, very little progress has been made to study this issue due to difficulties in both experiments and numerical modeling. The objective of this study is to systematically investigate the influence of stress on solute transport in fractured rocks for the first time, considering different stress and hydraulic pressure conditions. A hybrid approach combining discrete element method (DEM) for stress-flow simulations and a particle tracking algorithm is developed. The impact of matrix diffusion (diffusion of molecular size solutes in and out of the rock matrix, and sorption onto the surface of micropores in rock matrix) is also included. The numerical results show that stress not only significantly changes the solute residence time through the fracture networks, but also changes the solute travel paths. Matrix diffusion plays a dominant role in solute transport when the hydraulic gradient is small, which is often encountered in practice.     

东营凹陷古近系砂岩成岩作用与孔隙演化

东营凹陷是重要的油气富集区，在古近系地层发育湖相水下扇沉积、滨浅湖沉积和三角洲沉积等砂岩。砂岩的成岩作用及孔隙演化对储层的储集性能有重要影响。在对大量薄片和岩心进行分析的基础上，运用扫描电镜和X衍射粘土分析等手段，对东营凹陷砂岩储层的成岩作用和孔隙演化进行了研究。研究结果表明，该区压实作用、胶结作用使砂岩孔隙度降低，不稳定矿物的溶蚀作用和碳酸盐胶结物的溶解作用导致孔隙度增大。根据有机质的演化及粘土矿物的变化序列，在不同的构造单元，砂岩成岩作用和孔隙演化随埋深具有明显的规律性，可划分出原生孔隙带、原生次生孔隙带和次生孔隙带3个孔隙演化带，存在着较有利的次生孔隙发育带。