Natural building stones of Mexico–Tenochtitlán: their use, weathering and rock properties at the Templo Mayor, Palace Heras Soto and the Metropolitan Cathedral

In the Aztec period and in colonial times different natural stones originating in the Valley of Mexico were used for building construction. Stone weathering was investigated onsite at various historical buildings within the old quarter of Mexico City. In this study, different aspects of weathering and deterioration at three significant historical buildings will be presented, the Aztec excavation site Templo Mayor, the Metropolitan Cathedral, and the colonial palace of the dukes of Heras Soto. Petrophysical properties of the main building stones of these structures were investigated like density, porosity, pore radii distribution, water uptake rate and coefficient, thermal and hygric expansion, and the mechanical properties of uniaxial compressive strength. A relationship between single critical property values, according to anisotropy fabric characteristics, and specific weathering forms could be deduced.     

Water absorption process effect on strength of Ayazini tuff,such as the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS), flexural strength and freeze and thaw effect

Tuffs have been used as a construction material possibly since ancient times. In Afyonkarahisar, Turkey, there are numerous buildings constructed by tuff. Tuff has been a local construction material, during the Roman, Seljuk and Ottoman periods. Even though tuffs have relatively low durability and low strength values compared to marble, etc., they have survived with no major deterioration failures on many historical buildings. It has also been preferred because of its high porous texture, lightweight and easy shaping and process properties in the building sector. Naturally, it would be easily affected by water and humidity because of its porous structure. However, having this kind of structure leads to poor durability properties due to keeping water in it. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of the tuff quarried from the region and possible water effect, which may lead to degradation of its strength and durability of the material, thereby shortening the life span of the building structure used. Samples, which were tested after exposing to water and the freeze and thaw effects, were measured at a certain time. In this study, uniaxial compressive strength and flexural strength tests were conducted on test samples. The test results indicate that water may deteriorate the tuff’s strength properties and durability of the materials in due time.     

Sandstone degradation: an experimental study of accelerated weathering

The investigated rock material belongs to the group of upper cretaceous quader sandstones which are very important construction stones in Poland and Germany. The mineral composition of the rocks is relatively uniform??they are quartzose sandstones. The most important feature is their good workability and comparatively high weathering resistance. Still, regardless of the apparent resemblance, the observations carried on buildings and monuments show differences in weathering processes. The undertaken test was an attempt to verify the proposed before rock classification, performed on the basis of parameterization of porosimetric cumulative intrusion volume curves. The aim of the experiment was the evaluation of the sandstone petrography (including the structure, texture and porosity of the rock) influence on the weathering process. The modelling of accelerated weathering was conducted in Chamber for Ageing Acceleration, where some weather circumstances were simulated (insolation, rain and frost). As the result of the weathering experiment it could be stated that the dominant mechanism of the sandstones deterioration was granular disintegration and weight loss as a consequence of sample destruction. The most important factor influencing rock deterioration is rock texture, especially the character of grain contacts. The effective porosity is a requisite of potential for the stone to take in and hold water, and hence of resistance to weathering. In case of silica-cemented sandstones, the deciding criterion influencing weathering resistance is pore structure. In case of sandstones with clay cement, the most important is mineral composition of the rock.     

Assessment of rock geomechanical quality by quantitative rock fabric coefficients: Limitations and possible source of misinterpretations

Rock microfabrics were quantified by image measurement system (petrographic image analysis) of thin sections. Along with common measured parameters (grain area and size, length of major and minor axes and their orientation), some quantitative parameters (aspect ratio, grain boundary smoothness) and fabric coefficients (micropetrographic quality index (K), “texture” coefficient (TC), indexes of interlocking (t) and grain size homogeneity (g)) were determined. The reliability of these parameters for the evaluation of geomechanical properties was tested on the set of granitic rocks showing pronounced variability in rock mechanical properties. None of the tested rock fabric coefficients or parameters proved a close correlation to rock mechanical properties except grain size. Based on experimental findings, the grain size is, along with porosity, the controlling factor of rock mechanical properties of genetically and mineralogically similar rocks. Obliteration of the real effects of rock fabric parameters on the mechanical properties of rocks by application of complex fabric coefficients disables their practical use in petrography applied to geomechanics.     

Bowing of dimensional granitic stones

Bowing is a well-known phenomenon seen in marbles used as building veneers. This form of rock weathering occurs as a result of external factors such as temperature, humidity, the system for anchoring the marble slabs or the panel dimensions. Under the same external conditions, many factors will determine the degree of deformation including petrography, thermal properties and residual locked stresses. The usual way to solve the problem of bowed marble slabs is to replace them with other materials, such as granites, in which the deformation still exists but is less common. In this study, eight ornamental granites with different mineralogy, grain size, grain shape, porosity and fabric were tested in a laboratory to assess their susceptibility to bowing. Three slabs of granite, each cut with a different orientation, were studied under different conditions of temperature (90 and 120°C) and water saturation (dry and wet) to investigate the influence of these factors together with that of anisotropy. At 90°C, only the granite with the coarsest grain size and low porosity exhibited deformation under wet conditions. At 120°C and wet conditions, three of the granites showed evident signs of bowing. Again, the granite with the coarsest grain size was the most deformed. It was concluded that the wide grain size distribution influences microcracking more than other expected factors, such as the quartz content of the rock. Also, mineral shape-preferred orientation and porosity play an important role in the bowing of the studied granites.     

可溶盐对云冈石窟砂岩劣化试验及模型建立

可溶盐富集是造成山西大同云冈石窟砂岩表面风化、结构破坏及强度降低的重要地质病害之一。采取云冈石窟造像层砂岩,使用芒硝对该砂岩进行了劣化模拟试验。在可溶盐反复结晶过程中,对样品进行实时变形监测,并对循环过程中质量衰减、强度变化、孔隙分布等进行测试与分析。结果表明,可溶盐的发育是导致石窟表面粉化脱落的重要因素,严重降低了石窟文物本体的价值;可溶盐结晶导致岩石颗粒间胶结作用破坏,增大岩石孔隙率,岩石内部结构劣化严重影响岩石的刚度与强度等力学参数;对比无水芒硝与10水芒硝两种劣化试验,云冈石窟在相对干燥季节下,可溶盐晶体发育对岩石破坏更为显著。为了预测砂岩长期劣化过程,在试验数据基础上,初步建立起孔隙增长的对数模型和强度衰减的指数模型。     

库水波动带岸坡原位声波测试及劣化特性研究

为了揭示库水波动带内岩体在库水位周期性升降,干-湿循环条件下,其物理力学性质变化特征,掌握不同岩性的劣化改造过程和差异性。选择消落带内变形破坏强烈的侏罗系库岸斜坡,在宏观调查的基础上,运用单孔、跨孔声波测试方法进行原位试验测试,同时进行原位样品试件采集,运用干湿循环、力学测试、耐崩解等手段进行室内试验测试。原位单孔声波测试K_V值为0.2~0.51,跨声波测试K_V值为0.46~0.91,表明岩体横向完整性差,纵向完整性相对较好,并且消落带内岩体随着高程的降低,其岩体完整性呈下降趋势;试件力学测试结果表明,20次干-湿循环后其强度平均下降30%~45%,且摩擦系数和黏聚力参数均呈逐渐降低趋势;耐崩解性试验表明,干-湿循环条件下,岩石耐崩解性逐渐降低,5次干-湿循环后,试件耐崩解性指数降低量达3.1%~20.2%。试验结果均证实了消落带内岩体受库水影响强烈,岩体长期在干-湿循条件下,其物理力学性质呈降低趋势,不同岩性劣化程度不同,岩体总体向破碎、解体的趋势发展,并且具有渐进性和累积性。     

Research on limestone decay in a polluting environment, I˙stanbul-Turkey

 I˙stanbul, the capital of the east Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires embraces two continents, one arm reaching out to Asia, the other to Europe. It is therefore, a rich city in terms of monuments and historical cites. Shell limestones of Upper Miocene age are used as building stone in the majority of the monuments in I˙stanbul because of their attractiveness, availability and workability. The durability characteristics of the limestones are examined, and those factors that are responsible for atmospheric weathering are discussed, in a humid and marine environment with important problems of urban pollution, specifically due to traffic. In the present study weathering of the building stones were first examined in situ by macroscopic observations. The weathering that developed as a result of environmental effects since this limestone was first used in historical monuments has been affected 0.1–1.5 cm deep from the surface. The weathered facing stone of Şehzade Mehmed Mosque in I˙stanbul is undergoing a program of progressive replacement. During this study, samples were taken from this monument where the shell limestone was used. The stone surface was principally examined by means of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Petrographical and mineralogical analyses were made by using optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction method. The physico-chemical properties of these rocks control their weathering behaviour and reactivity. Major and trace element analyses and the effect of deterioration on the physical properties of the limestones (unit weight, porosity and water absorption) have also been investigated. Studies on the samples implies that weathering on the stone surface caused important variations on the physical characteristics of the rock. Received: 11 February 1998 · Accepted: 18 August 1998     

Correlation of mineralogical and textural characteristics with engineering properties of selected granitic rocks from Turkey

Granitic rocks show a variety of engineering properties that may affect quarrying operations, tunneling, mining, slope stability and the use of rock as a construction material. The physical and mechanical properties are a function of the mineralogical and textural characteristics of the rock. The purpose of this study is to apply correlation analysis to investigate the relationships between petrographical and engineering properties of granitic rocks. A variety of granitic rock samples from different parts of Turkey were subjected to petrographic studies. The same samples were then tested to determine specific gravity, dry and saturated unit weight, water absorption, effective and total porosity, sonic velocity, Schmidt hardness, point load strength index, uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity. The relationships between these properties and the petrographical characteristics are described by simple regression analyses. The study revealed that the influence of the textural characteristics on the engineering properties appears to be more important than the mineralogy. It also determined that the types of contacts, grain (mineral) shape and size significantly influence the engineering properties of the granitic rocks.     

The effects of strain rate and saturation on a micro-cracked marble

It is well known rock masses contain several types of weakness planes varying from micro-fissure to fault in size. The fracture frequency, degree of saturation and time are the basic rock parameters affecting its behaviour. However, in most cases, it is practically difficult to test heavily fractured rock in laboratory environment. In this study, the effects of micro cracks, strain rate and water saturation on strength are discussed using a small-scale physical experiments. It is attempted to detach the grain boundaries of coarse-grained rock specimens of the Mu?la marble by thermal treatment that would serve as a small-scale physical simulation of fractures in rock masses and enable a discussion of the variations in time dependent mechanical behaviour. An experimental study was conducted on marble specimens induced thermally by micro-cracks in different frequencies. The thermal treatment periods being 24 h in inert atmospheric condition were varied for each test specimen except categories A and G. Effective porosity increased up to 2.4% after the last thermal cycle of category F. Then conventional compression tests with different strain rates were carried out using a servo-controlled testing machine on both dry and saturated specimens. It is concluded that both lowering strain rates and increasing porosity related with thermally induced micro cracks have important effects on strength and failure path. The progressive failure entirely occurs along the grain boundaries fissured by cyclical treatment and inter-granular deformation depends upon degree of thermal influence. The small-scaled laboratory model enabled to demonstrate that parameters such as joint frequency, time and saturation have a significant effect on mechanical behaviour of rock masses.     

Durability assessment of the Ala?at? tuff (Izmir) in western Turkey

Ala?at? tuff has been used extensively as a source of building stone for outdoor and indoor decorations since the historical times in and around the tourist town of Ala?at? (western Turkey). The use of the Alacati tuff in buildings has been made compulsory by the Ala?at? municipality, for preserving the historical appearance of the buildings, after 2005 in Ala?at?. It has been noticed that, evident deteriorations developed in tuff surfaces of the stone buildings and garden walls within 5?C6?years of their emplacement. Durability properties of the Ala?at? tuff are evaluated by determining the mineralogical, chemical, and physico-mechanical properties of the fresh tuff samples obtained from the only operative quarry in the area. Ageing tests such as Na₂SO₄ and MgSO₄ salt crystallization, freezing?Cthawing, and wetting?Cdrying were conducted on the fresh tuff samples to assess their durability. Additionally, the durability of the tuff is also evaluated by determining its average pore diameter, saturation coefficient, wet-to-dry strength ratio, static rock and slake-durability indices. Fresh Ala?at? tuff has high porosity and low unit weight and strengths and are classified to be very poor to moderately durable stone based on the test results of different durability assessment methods. Mineralogical and geochemical analyses have also been carried out on the deteriorated tuff samples collected from the surfaces of the stone buildings to determine the effect of weathering on tuff and the test results have been compared with those of the fresh tuff samples. There is no major difference observed between the mineralogy and chemistry of the fresh and weathered tuff samples thus, it has been concluded that physical weathering has been dominant in the area in deterioration of tuff.     

A Moisture Index Classification System for Rocks (MiC System)

Summary.  Interaction of rocks with water is leading to a reduction in physical and mechanical properties, and quantifying this effect has always been a problem for design purposes in rock engineering projects. Despite the fact that a number of considerable works have been carried out in this field, they are not thorough and general. In this paper, a new rock classification system is presented in order to evaluate wet rock properties. Laboratory studies showed that six parameters may be recognized as major controlling parameters for wet rocks, including: water absorption, porosity, weathering degree, swelling index, number of microfissures, and average grain size. Many tests were performed and a sensitivity analysis was carried out on the data obtained. This analysis characterized the rock sensitivity when changing each parameter and consequently, a rating value was assigned to each parameter. By adding these rating values, a rating between zero and 100 is allocated to each rock as Moisture index (Mi). The closer this index is to 100, the more sensitive rock will be to moisture. On the basis of this index, rocks are divided into five classes including: very good, good, fair, weak and very weak.     

Thermal and physical properties of reconsolidated crushed rock salt as a function of porosity and temperature

Crushed salt can be used as backfill to bury and conduct heat away from radioactive waste in salt repositories. As the crushed salt compacts during reconsolidation, its thermal, mechanical and hydrologic properties will change in a manner related to the porosity. Measurements of crushed salt thermal properties are conducted to evaluate such relationships. A simple mixture theory model is presented to predict thermal conductivity of consolidating salt in repository conditions. Experimental work was completed to evaluate the model by measuring thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and specific heat of crushed salt as a function of porosity and temperature. Sample porosity ranged from 0 to 46 %, and measurements were made at ambient pressure, from room temperature to 300 °C. These are the temperature conditions expected in a radioactive waste storage facility. Crushed salt thermal conductivity decreases with increasing porosity and temperature. Thermal diffusivity showed little porosity dependence but decreased with increasing temperature. Specific heat also shows little porosity dependence but increases with increasing temperature. Fracture porosity in deformed bedded salt cores appears to reduce thermal conductivity more dramatically than inter- and intra-granular porosity in consolidated salt. A long-term effort to dry crushed salt at high temperatures resulted in a 0.48 weight-percent loss of water that had resided at grain boundaries and in intra-granular fluid inclusions. While this loss does not significantly affect thermal properties, the release of this water volume could impact the mechanical response of the reconsolidating salt and host rock.     

鄂尔多斯盆地西缘麻黄山地区延8储层特征

通过对延8储层铸体薄片、扫描电镜、孔渗测定、压汞资料等分析,延8储层具有以下特征：研究区北边富长石、南边富石英,具有不同的物源;砂岩粒度以中粒为主,细粒和粗粒次之;主要的储集空间为粒间孔和粒内溶孔;由于大量的长石、岩屑被溶,孔隙度、渗透率不呈正态分布,均偏大,溶蚀作用形成的大量微孔造成高束缚水饱和度,产纯油或含水率极低;砂体厚度、岩石相和成岩作用共同控制着储集层的物性。结果表明,位于河道中部弱胶结的中砂岩具有良好的储集性能。     

南沙群岛珊瑚礁灰岩弹性波性质的研究

利用弹性波法对南沙群岛永暑礁南永一井的珊瑚礁灰岩岩芯和其它礁砂土样品进行了弹性波测量,根据测量结果,绘出了礁灰岩弹性波波速随深度变化的关系曲线,并结合永暑礁的发育演化历史、岩石学、地层学、沉积旋回以及古地磁测年,深入研究了弹性波纵波波速的变化规律,以及它与礁灰岩年龄、结构、岩石类型、孔隙度、沉积环境、地质事件的关系。研究结果表明,看似异常的弹性波纵波波速值恰是以上诸因素综合作用的结果。弹性波特性的研究在珊瑚礁地质研究中具有重要的意义,并可应用于珊瑚礁结构及稳定性研究之中。     

土石混合料剪切特性影响因素的离散元数值研究

土石混合料剪切特性控制着高填方边坡的稳定性。土石混合料特殊的结构、物质及粒径组成等极其复杂,为探究土石混合料剪切特性影响因素及其规律,在室内试验基础上,基于PFC2D构建了颗粒离散元数值模型,分析了颗粒级配、初始孔隙率、块石尺寸及块石形状等因素对土石混合料剪切特性的影响。结果表明:土石混合料的剪应力-剪切位移曲线主要包括4个阶段:弹性变形、局部剪切、剪切破坏以及残余变形;块石形状、颗粒级配及初始孔隙率对土石混合料的破坏模式无明显影响,破坏模式均为应变软化型;当土石混合料的颗粒级配较差时,剪应力随剪切位移的增加出现较大波动,曲线出现明显"跳跃"现象;当含石量一定时,相同法向应力条件下,块石尺寸越大,土石混合料的抗剪强度越大,且随着法向应力的增大,不同块石尺寸的试验组之间抗剪强度差值也越大,块石尺寸对土石混合料抗剪强度的影响越明显。     

不同冷却条件对高温砂岩物理力学性质的影响

岩石工程可能会经受高温环境。岩石高温后冷却方式的不同往往会导致岩石物理力学性质产生重大变化,这对岩石工程的稳定性、渗透性等都会产生重要影响。采用核磁共振（MRI）、电镜扫描（SEM）和单轴压缩试验对100、300、500、600、800 ℃ 5种不同温度砂岩经两种不同冷却方式（自然冷却和水中冷却）后的孔隙率、孔径分布、峰值强度、峰值应变、应力-应变关系以及微观结构变化等进行研究。试验结果表明：自然冷却时,高温砂岩强度并非随温度升高而持续降低,而水冷却会导致砂岩强度持续降低,且降低幅度远超自然冷却;500 ℃可以看作不同冷却方式对砂岩孔隙率影响的临界值,超过500 ℃,水冷却方式会导致孔隙率急剧增长,大孔径（Ф 10 μm）孔隙所占比例也高于自然冷却,因此,高温砂岩工程采用水冷却方式（如隧道着火后用水灭火）要充分考虑由此可能带来渗透危害;SEM测试表明,当温度 500 ℃时,水冷却对裂纹的增宽和扩展产生促进作用;当温度达到800 ℃时,水冷却砂岩孔洞变大,裂隙更加发育,并贯通连成网络,这会导致透水性大幅提高,同时,这也是该温度水冷却导致强度急剧降低的原因之一。     

The influence of petrophysical properties on the salt weathering of porous building rocks

The influence of pore structure, water transport properties and rock strength on salt weathering is evaluated by means of a thorough rock characterisation and a statistical analysis. The pore structure was described in terms of its porosity, pore size distribution (quantified by mean pore radius) and specific surface area, density and water transport was characterised by means of water permeability (saturated flow) and capillary imbibition (unsaturated flow); whilst the rock strength test was carried out using uniaxial compressive strength, compressional and shear wave velocities, dynamic elastic constants and waveform energy and attenuation were obtained from the digital analysis of the transmitted signal. A principal component analysis and a stepwise multiple regression model was carried out in order to examine the direct relationships between salt weathering and petrophysical properties. From the principal component analysis, two main components were obtained and assigned a petrophysical meaning. The first component is mostly linked to mechanical properties, porosity and density whereas the second component is associated with the water transport and pore structure. Salt weathering, quantified by the percentage of weight loss after salt crystallisation, was included in both principal components, showing its dependence on their petrophysical properties. The stepwise multiple regression analysis found that rock strength has a predominant statistical weight in the prediction of salt weathering, with a minor contribution of water transport and pore structure parameters.     

地层条件下储集岩物性参数特征及影响因素

本文论述了储集岩在地层条件下孔隙度、渗透率的特征以及与地表条件下孔隙度、渗透率的关系。据此，归纳、总结出地层条例下孔隙度、渗透率变化的影响因素。并指出、孔隙度、渗透率的降低幅度主要是在围限压力为２０ＭＰａ范围内；孔隙度降低的幅度远远小于渗透率的降低幅度；孔隙度、渗透率降低的幅度与岩石的粒度、孔隙类型、胶结物等因素有关。