Scientific fundamentals and ways of realization of the general scheme of population distribution in the USSR

The paper describes the current stage of transformation of the residential distribution system in the USSR, the state policy in the field of urban development, the tasks facing Soviet architects and the way to their solution. The state policy in the field of residential distribution and urban development provides for: the systematic and scientifically substantiated distribution of production and human settlements on the basis of coordinated development and distribution of productive forces and the perfecting of the systems of residential distribution; the utilization, improvement and protection of landscape; the restriction of the growth of very large cities and development of the network of small and medium towns; the transformation of villages into modern well-organized settlements of the collective and state farms and the elimination of the existing distinctions between town and country; the regular development and distribution of towns and settlements in different geographical zones and most favourable natural-and-economic regions of the USSR; the overcoming of irregular population distribution in the European and Asiatic parts of the USSR; the formation of group-systems of human settlements on the basis of big urban agglomerations and territorial-industrial complexes; the development of new territories through land improvement. Basic attention in the report is paid to the consideration of the master scheme of residential distribution in the USSR, its scientific fundamentals, main purposes and tasks. The analysis of the decisive factors and of the main trends of the development of the systems of human settlements for a long-term perspective is given. The master scheme of residential distribution contemplates the systematic development on the USSR territory of different human settlements contributing, to a maximum degree, to the achievement of the objectives of socialist construction, to the creation of most favourable conditions for the people's work, life and rest, to the development and intensification of social production taking into account objective tendencies of urbanization and the effective use of forecasted urban development resources. The realization of the master scheme of residential distribution will allow to fully take into account the economic, ecological and demographic requirements in the elaboration and realization of the plans of development of production and residential distribution aimed at the rise of the living standard of the Soviet people.     

Urban development in the world dryland regions: Inventory and prospects

Interest in the social, technical and demographic problems involved in the development of the world's dryland regions has increased greatly in the recent past. This paper examines the location, size differentiation and growth of urban agglomerations with 100,000 or more inhabitants situated in the extremely arid, arid and and semi-arid regions. A total of 355 such major urban settlements are identified and their distribution and size characteristics are examined. Subsequently, the growth rates recorded by these urban areas in the period 1950–1970 are analyzed at the global, continental and national levels and according to city size. It is estimated that 26.1% of all dryland denizens reside in urban areas with populations of 100,000 or more. In conclusion, the future prospects and planning implications of such dryland urban agglomerations are discussed.     

Urbanization and spatial structure in Hungary

The last four decades have brought fundamental changes in Hungarian urbanization. The number of towns has increased from 54 to 166 and the number of settlements with a population over 100 000 has grown from 3 to 8, and the number of small towns with a population just over 30 000 has increased four times compared to the situation at the beginning of the century. While urban concentration has been growing, there has been a degradation of rural settlements, especially in the category of less than 500 inhabitants. This study deals with the spatial structure of Hungarian settlements, categorizing the towns according to their regional roles, population and dynamics of growth. The changes of their social and economic spheres influence their internal structures. The study attempts to summarize all the territorial, regional consequences of the recent social and economic changes that have been defining or modifying the urban development in Hungarian settlements.     

Optimum versus reality in Israel's town system

Israel's town system consists of 37 towns of different size, 28 development towns, and 24 semi-urban Jewish and Arab settlements, most of them consisting of 5,000–10,000 inhabitants. In the existing town system there is an exaggerated concentration of large towns in the Tel Aviv region; an excessive number of development towns; slow urban growth in the Negev and the Galilee; failure of semi-urban settlements to attain urban status; and the absence of urban settlements in many regions where they would be needed.A proposal to outline an optimal system of Israel's town development is discussed. It was found that the existing urban system in Israel shows a distortion which is four times bigger than the optimal one. A comparison between the optimal lay-out of towns and the real one uncovers the gaps where new towns should be established in the future, and points out the locations where no further urban development should be encouraged.     

New controversies on Columbus' “cosmographic” ideas

This paper examines the spatial distribution of the functional systems in the different belts of settlements around Budapest. The surburban belts have an important role in the capital's labour market, places of employment and recreation with 45 settlements. The paper reviews the structure of the Budapest agglomeration from the core to the three inner, middle and outer belts comprising the suburbs, the semi-urban settlements, the suburban villages, the satellite towns, and the satellite villages. Then the system of the functional urban centres are reviewed, The author establishes the concept of the main, the division, the district and the settlement group centres in the Budapest agglomeration. The different levels of attached functions, such as international, national, regional and local are also described with each centre type. The areal distribution of the centre system of Budapest is shown in maps too.     

The distribution and growth of urban settlements in Saudi Arabia

This paper examines the distribution characteristics of urban settlements in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia through major dimensions such as settlement regularly, degree of primacy and polarisation at the national and geographic regional levels. The paper points out that the settlement pattern at the national level has transformed from a primate distribution during the pre-plan period (< 1970) to an intermediary distribution during the period of development planning (1970 >). At the geographical regional level the settlement distribution, however, has shown diverse pattern. While the regional settlement distribution of Western and Eastern Region have shown trends of increasing polarisation, settlements in the Northern and Southern Regions are more log-normal in character. This is explained by the increasing growth of small and intermediary towns in the Northern and Southern Regions. The paper concludes that the national trend of decreasing urban primacy, induced by the decentralised national development strategies, is less pronounced due to the absence of a balanced regional investment policy. Since the government expenditure and settlement population growth rates are not related, slow growing primate cities continue to receive a larger share of public expenditure, enabling them to retain their primacy. This calls for a balanced regional investment policy to fully realise the national strategy of regional balance and multi-polar settlement pattern.     

A review of Holocene avulsions of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and possible effects on the evolution of civilizations in lower Mesopotamia

The role of avulsion in the evolution of civilization in lower Mesopotamia is widely recognized. Ancient settlements are closely associated with abandoned courses of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. This paper discusses avulsion history, controls of avulsions, their effects on civilization evolution from 7000 to 1000 yr B.P., and interactions between human activity and channel‐network evolution based on previous archaeological and geomorphological surveys, analysis of cuneiform texts, maps, satellite photos, and limited geological data. Settlement distribution in ancient Mesopotamia is modeled in relation to avulsion styles, as well as channel and sedimentation patterns. Avulsion belts are suggested as places where urban settlements emerged and were sustained. Multiple channel networks and avulsion belts created large, naturally irrigated areas, fostering the efficient agriculture needed to sustain dense rural and urban settlements. After channel networks were abandoned during delta evolution, largescale canal construction was required to sustain settlements but still could not prevent their decline. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

岩溶山区乡村聚落的格局特征及类型分析——以重庆市巫山县为例

为探索岩溶山区乡村聚落空间格局的特征,以位于重庆东北部岩溶广布的巫山县为研究对象,运用空间分布测度模型、空间规模测度模型和空间形态测度模型,定量分析了巫山乡村聚落的空间格局特征,并进一步划分了地域类型。分析结果表明,总体上,巫山县的乡村聚落有一定的空间集聚特征,但存在明显的区域差异;乡村聚落的规模普遍偏小,具有低值集聚的特征,空间上呈现县城西北、西南大规模农村聚落集中,东北、东南小规模零散分布的“西热东冷”的格局;在空间形态上,巫山县西部区域连接性好,但形状不规则,复杂程度高,东部区域连接性差,复杂程度不及西部区域。整体而言,巫山县的乡村聚落形状规则性差,缺乏规划与引导。通过构建乡村聚落空间测度指标体系,采用系统聚类的方法,将巫山县乡村聚落划分为6种类型:低密度散点型、低密度小团块型、低密度不规则团块状、中密度不规则条带型、高密度宽带型、高密度散点型。未来的县域乡村聚落重构需要根据不同类型的特点加以引导。      

Regional and urban population size weights in Saudi Arabia, 1962–1974

The aim of this paper 3s to study the development of population weights for regions and urban centres in Saudi Arabia through the period 1962–1974. In order to achieve this aim some non-parametric statistical rules have been used such as rank-size rule and the four-city index. The results show non-balanced distribution of population on both regional and urban scales. The concentration of people in urban centres is more pronounced than the concentration in regions. This is due to internal and external movement of population towards largesized urban centres. The paper recommends that the official authorities should give more consideration to economic and service development in rural and urban areas that are retreating in ranking and decreasing in population.     

Urban settlement program and land dispute resolution: The State of Israel versus the Negev Bedouin

Geo-political changes and the drive to higher standards of living induce growing numbers of nomad populations to give-up their special way of life. The Bedouin of the Israeli Negev are no exception. Gradually, they settled down in scattered, unauthorized clusters of tents and shacks in the open lands of the northern Negev. Governments of Israel were unsatisfied with the emerging unplanned spontaneous settlements. Consequently, governmental planning agencies came up with a program to house the Bedouin population in seven new towns. The government's initiative in establishing the towns had two main objectives. First, urban settlements were viewed as conduits for the provision of modern utilities and social services that were very hard to supply and distribute among the many small and scattered spontaneous settlements. Second, Bedouin put forward claims over much of the lands they arguably were using in their former way of life as nomads. Although the claims were not – and could not be – supported by legal documents, the government offered the Bedouin subsidized developed urban land in exchange of their claims over the undeveloped dry desert lands. Currently, more than 60 per cent of the Negev Bedouin population reside in the seven planned urban settlements. Nevertheless, only a small proportion of the land claims has been settled. This paper argues that the attempt to achieve both goals via the urban settlement program was too ambitious. While the goal of providing better services in urban areas has been partially accomplished, the goal of removing the claims over the lands is far from being resolved. The paper argues that the link between the two goals should be reconsidered. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Observations on the relevance of the industrial-Urban hypothesis for rural development

Rural development tends to be viewed as a facet of urban development in the sense that rural areas are expected to be recipients of positive urban spill-overs. To that end, two concepts have been formulated: growth centre theory and the Industrial-Urban Hypothesis (IUH). The former has been beset by conceptual problems whereas the simpler IUH has not been tested in a Canadian context. This paper tests the basic IUH proposition that the general level of rural development is an inverse function of urban accessibility. Findings suggest that the IUH is more attuned to the impacts of smaller centres rather than the region's metropolitan centre. However, introduction of an exogenous element based on ethnic variations in rural settlements indicate how socializing factors work to modify the IUH concept.     

Role and timing of complementary objectives of a regional policy,the case of Northern Israel

The lessons of a regional development policy for Northern Israel are evaluated. The policy has been led by two complementary objectives: the creation of a demographic balance in favour of Jews and the geographical development of a continuous network of Jewish settlements. Each objective had its appropriate spatial timing in the regional process. The first took advantage of geopolitical needs, ideological values and social conditions of the evolving nation during its pre-state and its early years. Attempts to reach the other objective through urban development programmes had failed until recently due to the strong polarization effects of Metropolitan Haifa. Starting in the mid 1970s, spontaneous metropolitan spread effects have created favourable conditions of growth. They have been reflected by both urban growth and massive rural development throughout the spillover effect area of the metropolis.     

Climatological aspects in locating settlements in arid regionsKlimatologische aspekte bei der standortwahl für neue siedlungen in ariden regionenAspects climatologiques dans l'emplacement de villages dans des régions arides

In arid and semi-arid regions it is important to pay attention to climatic factors in locating and planning new settlements. Physical factors such as large differences in elevation over short distances, proximity to a large lake or the combination of the two factors, cause improvement of the climate.The central Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea could be a suitable area for proving these assumptions. A topo-climatological research has been performed in this region to help the planners in finding the best locations for new settlements. By using a “discomfort index”, which is based on temperature and humidity, the influence of the above mentioned physical factors on local climate modification has been verified. Also, its importance in the improvement of the location of new settlements has been shown.     

Climatological aspects in locating settlements in arid regions

In arid and semi-arid regions it is important to pay attention to climatic factors in locating and planning new settlements. Physical factors such as large differences in elevation over short distances, proximity to a large lake or the combination of the two factors, cause improvement of the climate.The central Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea could be a suitable area for proving these assumptions. A topo-climatological research has been performed in this region to help the planners in finding the best locations for new settlements. By using a “discomfort index”, which is based on temperature and humidity, the influence of the above mentioned physical factors on local climate modification has been verified. Also, its importance in the improvement of the location of new settlements has been shown.     

苏南地区城乡聚落空间演化过程及其格局特征

当前,城乡聚落空间正由自然和经济社会条件存在差异的等级体系转变为密切联系的网络化结构,城乡融合已经成为中国城乡聚落空间演化发展的重要方向。以苏南地区为例,对20世纪90年代以来的城乡聚落空间演化过程及其格局特征进行分析,发现2000年以后城镇聚落扩张强度远高于乡村聚落,城乡聚落空间结构可进一步归纳为集中、双心、多核和密集4种基本格局。该研究对乡村振兴背景下的城乡聚落空间优化布局具有一定指导作用。     

Towards a normative concept of settlements: the development process and theoretical and conceptual problems in the “Lower limb”

This paper critically evaluates theories of settlement pattern and change which have commonly been employed by geographers. Those discussed include central place, growth pole and modernization theories, as well as notions of settlements as a product of adaptation to environmental conditions, as central places, or as nodes of retail distribution. In all instances criticism centres on the applicability of those notions to the African rural scene. It is suggested that not only are most concepts inappropriate in this context, but they are also partial and historically relative. More suitable, normative concepts of settlements and settlement systems are suggested.     

The role of rural industries in the arid and semi-arid areas of the Sudan

The aim of the study is to evaluate the socio-economic contribution made by traditional industries in the arid and semiarid areas of the Sudan, and to assess their environmental impact. Two study areas, known for their diversified rural industries, have been chosen: the Mahmiya-Damar area as an example of riverine settlements, an non-riverine example of the Butana area (mainly El Subbagh region) in E Sudan.Rural industries in both areas were surveyed through direct interviews. A complete survey was made of the independent small industrial units, which are usually located in the markets, whilst a random-sample house survey was also carried out in both areas. In both areas the industries found have been grouped into seven classes.The survey, limited as it was in the residential areas, nonetheless revealed certain important characteristics of the production, distribution, and labour structure of the industries. It also revealed certain problems and difficulties which may lead in the end to a reduction of their role in these regions.     

Analysis of creep settlement of pile groups in linear viscoelastic soil

This paper presents the analysis of creep settlement of pile groups for line pile groups, square pile groups, and rectangular pile groups undergoing creep settlements over a period of time. The soil is treated as a viscoelastic material and is modeled using a three-parameter viscoelastic model. The damping component (dashpot) takes care of the permanent time-dependent deformations in three-parameter viscoelastic model. An approach suggested by Mindlin has been employed to calculate the stress distribution along the pile length in a group. The viscoelastic problem is converted into an elastic problem by the application of Laplace transform. Results in the form of variation of interaction factors for parameters such as pile length to diameter ratio, pile spacing, Poisson's ratio, and modulus ratio have been presented. Comparison has been made between interaction factors for piles groups undergoing immediate settlements and creep settlements. Finally, a typical predictive example has been presented for a 3 × 3 pile group showing creep settlement. The load rearrangement due to creep settlements causes about 5% to 35% increase in base resistance over time. Interaction factors for pile groups (2 × 1, 3 × 1, 2 × 2, and 3 × 2) undergoing creep settlement is about 15% to 55% higher than the interaction factors considering only the immediate settlements for pile group spacing less than or equal to 5d.     

The southern agglomeration zone of the GDR — Regional structure and development

Agglomeration areas in the GDR are those regions, which are characterized by an above average level of regional concentration of productive forces and their conditions of reproduction. The economic potential concentrated in these regions represents a large part of the national economy. It is possible to describe the territorial structure of these agglomeration areas by general indices (agglomeration core — agglomeration field — agglometation fringe; polycentric node-band-structure), but also the individual features of each one of these regions are to be attended. They are expressed for the first time by several forms of localization of plants and by the structure of settlements and settlement networks. The present main tendencies in the development of the agglomeration regions are:

They succeeded in minimizing the regional disparities of productivity between different agglomeration regions and within them, and in stabilizing the economic position of these regions by systematic measures for investment and rationalization and the hereby influenced structural changes.

At present and up to 1990 the completion of housing programme is of foremost importance by which the main activities will shift from the urban fringe to the centres of the cities; provincial towns and smaller settlements will also participate in this programme.

The main target of these activities is to remove imperfect structures and other burning problems of the agglomeration regions step by step. Geographical Institutes are dealing with the management of these tasks too.     

喀斯特地区不同岩性上农村居民点分布特征——以平果市为例

以典型喀斯特地区广西平果市的农村居民点为研究对象,运用GIS空间分析方法、Voronoi图和景观格局指数分析方法,揭示平果市喀斯特地区不同岩性上农村居民点的空间分布特征.结果表明:(1)平果市农村居民点总面积为4825.15 hm2,喀斯特地区与非喀斯特地区的农村居民面积比值约为2.8:1;(2)平果市的农村居民点属于...