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1.
The Alban Hills, a Quaternary volcanic center lying west of the central Apennines, 15–25 km southeast of Rome, last erupted
19 ka and has produced approximately 290 km3 of eruptive deposits since the inception of volcanism at 580 ka. Earthquakes of moderate intensity have been generated there
at least since the Roman age. Modern observations show that intermittent periods of swarm activity originate primarily beneath
the youngest features, the phreatomagmatic craters on the west side of the volcano. Results from seismic tomography allow
identification of a low-velocity region, perhaps still hot or partially molten, more than 6 km beneath the youngest craters
and a high-velocity region, probably a solidified magma body, beneath the older central volcanic construct. Thirty centimeters
of uplift measured by releveling supports the contention that high levels of seismicity during the 1980s and 1990s resulted
from accumulation of magma beneath these craters. The volume of magma accumulation and the amount of maximum uplift was probably
at least 40×106 m3 and 40 cm, respectively. Comparison of newer levelings with those completed in 1891 and 1927 suggests earlier episodes of
uplift. The magma chamber beneath the western Alban Hills is probably responsible for much of the past 200 ka of eruptive
activity, is still receiving intermittent batches of magma, and is, therefore, continuing to generate modest levels of volcanic
unrest. Bending of overburden is the most likely cause of the persistent earthquakes, which generally have hypocenters above
the 6-km-deep top of the magma reservoir. In this view, the most recent uplift and seismicity are probably characteristic
and not precursors of more intense activity.
Received: 15 April 1997 / Accepted: 9 August 1997 相似文献
2.
The rates of passive degassing from volcanoes are investigated by modelling the convective overturn of dense degassed and
less dense gas-rich magmas in a vertical conduit linking a shallow degassing zone with a deep magma chamber. Laboratory experiments
are used to constrain our theoretical model of the overturn rate and to elaborate on the model of this process presented by
Kazahaya et al. (1994). We also introduce the effects of a CO2–saturated deep chamber and adiabatic cooling of ascending magma. We find that overturn occurs by concentric flow of the magmas
along the conduit, although the details of the flow depend on the magmas' viscosity ratio. Where convective overturn limits
the supply of gas-rich magma, then the gas emission rate is proportional to the flow rate of the overturning magmas (proportional
to the density difference driving convection, the conduit radius to the fourth power, and inversely proportional to the degassed
magma viscosity) and the mass fraction of water that is degassed. Efficient degassing enhances the density difference but
increases the magma viscosity, and this dampens convection. Two degassing volcanoes were modelled. At Stromboli, assuming
a 2 km deep, 30% crystalline basaltic chamber, containing 0.5 wt.% dissolved water, the ∼700 kg s–1 magmatic water flux can be modelled with a 4–10 m radius conduit, degassing 20–100% of the available water and all of the
1 to 4 vol.% CO2 chamber gas. At Mount St. Helens in June 1980, assuming a 7 km deep, 39% crystalline dacitic chamber, containing 4.6 wt.%
dissolved water, the ∼500 kg s–1 magmatic water flux can be modelled with a 22–60 m radius conduit, degassing ∼2–90% of the available water and all of the
0.1 to 3 vol.% CO2 chamber gas. The range of these results is consistent with previous models and observations. Convection driven by degassing
provides a plausible mechanism for transferring volatiles from deep magma chambers to the atmosphere, and it can explain the
gas fluxes measured at many persistently active volcanoes.
Received: 26 September 1997 / Accepted: 11 July 1998 相似文献
3.
Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database 总被引:2,自引:1,他引:1
The number of victims from volcanism and the primary cause(s) of death reported in the literature show considerable uncertainty.
We present the results of investigations carried out either in contemporary accounts or in specific studies of eruptions that
occurred since A.D. 1783. More than 220 000 people died because of volcanic activity during this period, which includes approximately
90% of the recorded deaths throughout history. Most of the fatalities resulted from post-eruption famine and epidemic disease
(30.3%), nuées ardentes or pyroclastic flows and surges (26.8%), mudflows or lahars (17.1%), and volcanogenic tsunamis (16.9%).
At present, however, international relief efforts might reduce the effects of post-eruption crop failure and disease, and
at least some of the lahars could be anticipated in time by adequate scientific and social response. Thus, mitigation of hazards
from pyroclastic flows and tsunamis will become of paramount importance to volcanologists and civil authorities.
Received: 3 August 1997 / Accepted: 10 April 1998 相似文献
4.
Dike propagation and dilation increases the compression of adjacent rocks. On volcanoes, especially oceanic shields, dikes
are accordingly thought to be structurally destabilizing. As compression is incremented, volcanic flanks are driven outward
or downslope and thus increase their susceptibility to destructive earthquakes and giant landslides. We show, however, that
the 2-m-thick dike emplaced along the east rift zone of Kilauea in 1983 actually stabilized that volcano's flank. Specifically,
production of flank earthquakes dropped more than twofold after 1983 as maximum downslope motion slowed to 6 cm·year–1 from approximately 40 cm·year–1 during 1980–1982. As much as 65 cm of deflationary subsidence above Kilauea's summit and upper rift zones accompanied the
dike intrusion. According to recent estimates, this deflation corresponds to a reduction in magma-reservoir pressure of approximately
4 MPa, probably about as much as the driving pressure of the 1983 dike. The volume of the dike, approximately 0.10–0.15 km3, is orders of magnitude less than the estimated 200- to 250-km3 volume of Kilauea's reservoir of magma and nearby hot, mushy rock. Thus, deflation of that reservoir reduces the compressional
load on the flank over a much larger area than intrusion of the dike adds to it, particularly at the dominant depth of seismicity,
8–9 km. A Coulomb block model for flank motion during intervals between major earthquakes requires the low-angle fault beneath
Kilauea's flank to exhibit slip weakening, conducive to earthquake instability. Accordingly, the triggering mechanism of destructive
earthquakes, several of which have struck Hawaii during the past 150 years, need not require stresses accumulated by dike
intrusions.
Received: 27 October 1998 / Accepted: 24 May 1999 相似文献
5.
A study of volcanic tremor on Stromboli is carried out on the basis of data recorded daily between 1993 and 1995 by a permanent
seismic station (STR) located 1.8 km away from the active craters. We also consider the signal of a second station (TF1),
which operated for a shorter time span. Changes in the spectral tremor characteristics can be related to modifications in
volcanic activity, particularly to lava effusions and explosive sequences. Statistical analyses were carried out on a set
of spectra calculated daily from seismic signals where explosion quakes were present or excluded. Principal component analysis
and cluster analysis were applied to identify different classes of spectra. Three clusters of spectra are associated with
two different states of volcanic activity. One cluster corresponds to a state of low to moderate activity, whereas the two
other clusters are present during phases with a high magma column as inferred from the occurrence of lava fountains or effusions.
We therefore conclude that variations in volcanic activity at Stromboli are usually linked to changes in the spectral characteristics
of volcanic tremor. Site effects are evident when comparing the spectra calculated from signals synchronously recorded at
STR and TF1. However, some major spectral peaks at both stations may reflect source properties. Statistical considerations
and polarization analysis are in favor of a prevailing presence of P-waves in the tremor signal along with a position of the
source northwest of the craters and at shallow depth.
Received: 15 December 1996 / Accepted: 31 March 1998 相似文献
6.
A. W. Hurst 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1998,60(1):1-9
Virtually all the seismicity within Ruapehu Volcano recorded during a 2-month deployment in early 1994, with 14 broadband
seismographs around the Tongariro National Park volcanoes in the North Island of New Zealand, was associated with the active
vent and occurred within approximately 1 km of Ruapehu Crater Lake. High-frequency volcano-tectonic earthquakes and low-frequency
events (similar to bursts of 2 Hz volcanic tremor) were both found to have sources in this region. The high-frequency events,
which often consisted of a smaller precursor event followed approximately 2 s later by the main event, had sharp onsets and
were locatable using standard techniques. The depth of these events ranged from the surface down to approximately 1500 m below
Crater Lake. The low-frequency events did not have sharp onsets and were located by phase-correlation methods. Nearly all
occurred under a small region on the east side of Crater Lake, at depths from 200 to 1000 m below the surface. This low-frequency
earthquake source region, in which no high-frequency events occurred, may be the steam zone within the actual vent of Ruapehu
Volcano.
Received: 30 June 1996 / Accepted: 16 February 1998 相似文献
7.
Fragmentation of magma during Plinian volcanic eruptions 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
James E. Gardner Richard M. E. Thomas Claude Jaupart Steve Tait 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1996,58(2-3):144-162
The ratio of the volume of vesicles (gas) to that of glass (liquid) in pumice clasts (V
G
/V
L
) reflects the degassing and dynamic history experienced by a magma during an explosive eruption. V
G
/V
L
in pumices from a large number of Plinian eruption deposits is shown here to vary by two orders of magnitude, even between
pumices at a given level in a deposit. These variations in V
G
/V
L
do not correlate with crystallinity or initial water content of the magmas or their eruptive intensities, despite large ranges
in these variables. Gas volume ratios of pumices do, however, vary systematically with magma viscosity estimated at the point
of fragmentation, and we infer that pumices do not quench at the level of fragmentation but undergo some post-fragmentary
evolution. On the timescale of Plinian eruptions, pumices with viscosities <109 Pa s can expand after fragmentation, as long as their bubbles retain gas, at a rate inversely proportional to their viscosity.
Once the bubbles connect to form a permeable network and lose their gas, expansion halts and pumices with viscosities <105 Pa s can collapse under the action of surface tension. Textural evidence from bubble sizes and shapes in pumices indicates
that both expansion and collapse have taken place. The magnitudes of expansion and collapse, therefore, depend critically
on the timing of bubble connectivity relative to the final moment of quenching. We propose that bubbles in different pumices
become connected at different times throughout the time span between fragmentation and quenching. After accounting for these
effects, we derive new information on the fragmentation process from two characteristics of pumices. The most important is
a relatively constant minimum value of V
G
/V
L
of ∼1.78 (64 vol.% vesicularity) in all samples with viscosities >105 Pa s. This value is independent of magma composition and thus reflects a property of the eruptive mechanism. The other characteristic
is that highly expanded pumices (>85 vol.% vesicularities) are common, which argues against overpressure in bubbles as a mechanism
for fragmenting magma. We suggest that magma fragments when it reaches a vesicularity of ∼64 vol.%, but only if sheared sufficiently
strongly. The intensity of shear varies as a function of velocity in the conduit, which is related to overpressure in the
chamber, so that changes in overpressure with time are important in controlling the common progression from explosive to effusive
activity at volcanoes.
Received: 19 April 1995 / Accepted: 3 April 1996 相似文献
8.
Thomas C. Pierson 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1998,60(2):98-109
Travel times for wet volcanic mass flows (debris avalanches and lahars) can be forecast as a function of distance from source
when the approximate flow rate (peak discharge near the source) can be estimated beforehand. The near-source flow rate is
primarily a function of initial flow volume, which should be possible to estimate to an order of magnitude on the basis of
geologic, geomorphic, and hydrologic factors at a particular volcano. Least-squares best fits to plots of flow-front travel
time as a function of distance from source provide predictive second-degree polynomial equations with high coefficients of
determination for four broad size classes of flow based on near-source flow rate: extremely large flows (>1 000 000 m3/s), very large flows (10 000–1 000 000 m3/s), large flows (1000–10 000 m3/s), and moderate flows (100–1000 m3/s). A strong nonlinear correlation that exists between initial total flow volume and flow rate for "instantaneously" generated
debris flows can be used to estimate near-source flow rates in advance. Differences in geomorphic controlling factors among
different flows in the data sets have relatively little effect on the strong nonlinear correlations between travel time and
distance from source. Differences in flow type may be important, especially for extremely large flows, but this could not
be evaluated here. At a given distance away from a volcano, travel times can vary by approximately an order of magnitude depending
on flow rate. The method can provide emergency-management officials a means for estimating time windows for evacuation of
communities located in hazard zones downstream from potentially hazardous volcanoes.
Received: 5 June 1997 / Accepted: 2 February 1998 相似文献
9.
Measurements of CO2 fluxes from open-vent volcanos are rare, yet may offer special capabilities for monitoring volcanos and forecasting activity.
The measured fluxes of CO2 and SO2 from Mount St. Helens decreased from July through November 1980, but the record includes variations of CO2/SO2 in the emitted gas and episodes of greatly increased fluxes of CO2. We propose that the CO2 flux variations reflect two gas components: (a) a component whose flux decreased in proportion to 1/ √t with a CO2/SO2 mass ratio of 1.7, and (b) a residual flux of CO2 consisting of short-lived, large peaks with a CO2/SO2 mass ratio of 15. We propose two hypotheses: (a) the 1/ √t dependence was generated by crystallization in a deep magma body at rates governed by diffusion-limited heat transfer, and
(b) the gas component with the higher CO2/SO2 was released from ascending magma, which replenished the same magma body. The separation of the total CO2 flux into contributions from known processes permits quantitative inferences about the replenishment and crystallization
rates of open-system magma bodies beneath volcanos. The flux separations obtained by using two gas sources with distinct CO2/SO2 ratios and a peak minus background approach to obtain the CO2 contributions from an intermittent source and a continuously emitting source are similar. The flux separation results support
the hypothesis that the second component was generated by episodic magma ascent and replenishment of the magma body. The diffusion-limited
crystallization hypothesis is supported by the decay of minimum CO2 and SO2 fluxes with 1/ √t after 1 July 1980. We infer that the magma body at Mount St. Helens was replenished at an average rate (2.8×106 m3 d–1) which varied by less than 5% during July, August, and September 1980. The magma body volume (2.4–3.0 km3) in early 1982 was estimated by integrating a crystallization rate function inferred from CO2 fluxes to maximum times (20±4 years) estimated from the increase of sample crystallinity with time. These new volcanic gas
flux separation methods and the existence of relations among the CO2 flux, crystallization rates, and magma body replenishment rates yield new information about the dynamics of an open-vent,
replenished magma body.
Received: 15 February 1995 / Accepted: 30 March 1996 相似文献
10.
We analyzed more than 1700 earthquakes related to the 1982 eruption of El Chichon volcano in southern Mexico. The data were
recorded at specific periods throughout the whole eruptive interval of March to April 1982, by three different networks. The
seismic activity began several months before the first eruption on 28 March. During this period the seismicity consisted of
hybrid and long-period shallow earthquakes most likely related to processes of faulting, fracturing, and fluid movement underneath
the volcano. The foci of events occurring before the eruption circumscribe an aseismic zone from approximately 7 to 13 km
below the volcano. After the eruption, the seismic activity consisted of tectonic-type earthquakes that peaked at 1200 events/h.
This later activity occurred over a wide range of depths, mostly between 5 and 20 km, that includes the former aseismic zone
and is roughly limited by the major tectonic faults in the area.
Received: 19 May 1998 / Accepted: 13 June 1999 相似文献
11.
Volcanic breccias form large parts of composite volcanoes and are commonly viewed as containing pyroclastic fragments emplaced
by pyroclastic processes or redistributed as laharic deposits. Field study of cone-forming breccias of the andesitic middle
Pleistocene Te Herenga Formation on Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand, was complemented by paleomagnetic laboratory investigation
permitting estimation of emplacement temperatures of constituent breccia clasts. The observations and data collected suggest
that most breccias are autoclastic deposits. Five breccia types and subordinate, coherent lava-flow cores constitute nine,
unconformity-bounded constructional units. Two types of breccia are gradational with lava-flow cores. Red breccias gradational
with irregularly shaped lava-flow cores were emplaced at temperatures in excess of 580 °C and are interpreted as aa flow
breccias. Clasts in gray breccia gradational with tabular lava-flow cores, and in some places forming down-slope-dipping avalanche
bedding beneath flows, were emplaced at varying temperatures between 200 and 550 °C and are interpreted as forming part of
block lava flows. Three textural types of breccia are found in less intimate association with lava-flow cores. Matrix-poor,
well-sorted breccia can be traced upslope to lava-flow cores encased in autoclastic breccia. Unsorted boulder breccia comprises
constructional units lacking significant exposed lava-flow cores. Clasts in both of these breccia types have paleomagnetic
properties generally similar to those of the gray breccias gradational with lava-flow cores; they indicate reorientation after
acquisition of some, or all, magnetization and ultimate emplacement over a range of temperatures between 100 and 550 °C.
These breccias are interpreted as autoclastic breccias associated with block lava flows. Matrix-poor, well-sorted breccia
formed by disintegration of lava flows on steep slopes and unsorted boulder breccia is interpreted to represent channel-floor
and levee breccias for block lava flows that continued down slope. Less common, matrix-rich, stratified tuff breccias consisting
of angular blocks, minor scoria, and a conspicuously well-sorted ash matrix were generally emplaced at ambient temperature,
although some deposits contain clasts possibly emplaced at temperatures as high as 525 °C. These breccias are interpreted
as debris-flow and sheetwash deposits with a dominant pyroclastic matrix and containing clasts likely of mixed autoclastic
and pyroclastic origin. Pyroclastic deposits have limited preservation potential on the steep, proximal slopes of composite
volcanoes. Likewise, these steep slopes are more likely sites of erosion and transport by channeled or unconfined runoff rather
than depositional sites for reworked volcaniclastic debris. Autoclastic breccias need not be intimately associated with coherent
lava flows in single outcrops, and fine matrix can be of autoclastic rather than pyroclastic origin. In these cases, and likely
many other cases, the alternation of coherent lava flows and fragmental deposits defining composite volcanoes is better described
as interlayered lava-flow cores and cogenetic autoclastic breccias, rather than as interlayered lava flows and pyroclastic
beds. Reworked deposits are probably insignificant components of most proximal cone-forming sequences.
Received: 1 October 1998 / Accepted: 28 December 1998 相似文献
12.
Field-based studies of surficial volcanic deposits are commonly complicated by a combination of poor exposure and rapid lateral
variations controlled by unknown paleotopography. The potential of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) as an aid to volcanological
studies is shown using data collected from traverses over four well-exposed, Recent volcanic deposits in western Canada. The
deposits comprise a pumice airfall deposit (3–4 m thick), a basalt lava flow (3–6 m thick), a pyroclastic flow deposit (15 m
thick), and an internally stratified pumice talus deposit (60 m thick). Results show that GPR is effective in delineating
major stratigraphic contacts and hence can be used to map unexposed deposits. Different volcanic deposits also exhibit different
radar stratigraphic character, suggesting that deposit type may be determined from radar images. In addition, large blocks
within the pyroclastic deposits are detected as distinctive point diffractor patterns in the profiles, showing that the technique
has potential for providing important grain-size information in coarse poorly sorted deposits. Laboratory measurements of
dielectric constant (K') are reported for samples of the main rock types and are compared with values of K' for the bulk deposit as inferred from the field data. The laboratory values differ significantly from the "field" values
of K'; these results suggest that the effectiveness of GPR at any site can be substantially improved by initial calibration of
well-exposed locations.
Received: 10 May 1996 / Accepted: 27 December 1996 相似文献
13.
Michael O. Garcia J. M. Rhodes Frank A. Trusdell Aaron J. Pietruszka 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1996,58(5):359-379
The Puu Oo eruption has been remarkable in the historical record of Kilauea Volcano for its duration (over 13 years), volume
(>1 km3) and compositional variation (5.7–10 wt.% MgO). During the summer of 1986, the main vent for lava production moved 3 km down
the east rift zone and the eruption style changed from episodic geyser-like fountaining at Puu Oo to virtually continuous,
relatively quiescent effusion at the Kupaianaha vent. This paper examines this next chapter in the Puu Oo eruption, episodes
48 and 49, and presents new ICP-MS trace element and Pb-, Sr-, and Nd-isotope data for the entire eruption (1983–1994). Nearly
aphyric to weakly olivine-phyric lavas were erupted during episodes 48 and 49. The variation in MgO content of Kupaianaha
lavas erupted before 1990 correlates with changes in tilt at the summit of Kilauea, both of which probably were controlled
by variations in Kilauea's magma supply rate. These lavas contain euhedral olivines which generally are in equilibrium with
whole-rock compositions, although some of the more mafic lavas which erupted during 1990, a period of frequent pauses in the
eruption, accumulated 2–4 vol.% olivine. The highest forsterite content of olivines (∼85%) in Kupaianaha lavas indicates that
the parental magmas for these lavas had MgO contents of ∼10 wt.%, which equals the highest observed value for lavas during
this eruption. The composition of the Puu Oo lavas has progressively changed during the eruption. Since early 1985 (episode
30), when mixing between an evolved rift zone magma and a more mafic summit reservoir-derived magma ended, the normalized
(to 10 wt.% MgO) abundances of highly incompatible elements and CaO have systematically decreased with time, whereas ratios
of these trace elements and Pb, Sr, and Nd isotopes, and the abundances of Y and Yb, have remained relatively unchanged. These
results indicate that the Hawaiian plume source for Puu Oo magmas must be relatively homogeneous on a scale of 10–20 km3 (assuming 5–10% partial melting), and that localized melting within the plume has apparently progressively depleted its incompatible
elements and clinopyroxene component as the eruption continued. The rate of variation of highly incompatible elements in Puu
Oo lavas is much greater than that observed for Kilauea historical summit lavas (e.g., Ba/Y 0.09 a–1 vs ∼0.03 a–1). This rapid change indicates that Puu Oo magmas did not mix thoroughly with magma in the summit reservoir. Thus, except
for variable amounts of olivine fractionation, the geochemical variation in these lavas is predominantly controlled by mantle
processes.
Received: 8 March 1996 / Accepted: 30 April 1996 相似文献
14.
Pierre Delmelle Minoru Kusakabe Alain Bernard Tobias Fischer Simon de Brouwer Esfeca del Mundo 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1998,59(8):562-576
The hydrologic structure of Taal Volcano has favored development of an extensive hydrothermal system whose prominent feature
is the acidic Main Crater Lake (pH<3) lying in the center of an active vent complex, which is surrounded by a slightly alkaline
caldera lake (Lake Taal). This peculiar situation makes Taal prone to frequent, and sometimes catastrophic, hydrovolcanic
eruptions. Fumaroles, hot springs, and lake waters were sampled in 1991, 1992, and 1995 in order to develop a geochemical
model for the hydrothermal system. The low-temperature fumarole compositions indicate strong interaction of magmatic vapors
with the hydrothermal system under relatively oxidizing conditions. The thermal waters consist of highly, moderately, and
weakly mineralized solutions, but none of them corresponds to either water–rock equilibrium or rock dissolution. The concentrated
discharges have high Na contents (>3500 mg/kg) and low SO4/Cl ratios (<0.3). The Br/Cl ratio of most samples suggests incorporation of seawater into the hydrothermal system. Water
and dissolved sulfate isotopic compositions reveal that the Main Crater Lake and spring discharges are derived from a deep
parent fluid (T≈300 °C), which is a mixture of seawater, volcanic water, and Lake Taal water. The volcanic end member is
probably produced in the magmatic-hydrothermal environment during absorption of high-temperature gases into groundwater. Boiling
and mixing of the parent water give rise to the range of chemical and isotopic characteristics observed in the thermal discharges.
Incursion of seawater from the coastal region to the central part of the volcano is supported by the low water levels of the
lakes and by the fact that Lake Taal was directly connected to the China sea until the sixteenth century. The depth to the
seawater-meteoric water interface is calculated to be 80 and 160 m for the Main Crater Lake and Lake Taal, respectively. Additional
data are required to infer the hydrologic structure of Taal. Geochemical surveillance of the Main Crater Lake using the SO4/Cl, Na/K, or Mg/Cl ratio cannot be applied straightforwardly due to the presence of seawater in the hydrothermal system.
Received: 12 February 1997 / Accepted: 26 January 1998 相似文献
15.
Glen S. Mattioli Pamela E. Jansma Lorna Jaramillo Alan L. Smith 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1996,58(5):401-410
A desktop image processing and photogrammetric method was developed for digitizing black-and-white aerial photographs. The
technique was applied to airborne optical images of Mt. Pelée, Martinique, a historically active volcano in the tropical Lesser
Antilles island arc, to evaluate its utility for rapid geologic mapping and hazard assessment in vegetated areas. The digital
approach provides several advantages over traditional air-photo interpretation by allowing for change detection in time-series
images, morphologic characterization, development of digital elevation models from stereopairs, and geo-referencing with other
digital data sets. A digital mosaic of Mt. Pelée was created from air photos acquired in 1951, which covered the region affected
by the 1902 eruption. Severe mismatches occurred along edges of adjacent photographs prior to correction, which precluded
quantitative morphologic analysis of the volcanic edifice. Geometric corrections and histogram equalization of digitized air
photos allowed creation of a continuous mosaic. Comparison of the mosaic and a map based on differences in gray scale and
texture to a volcanostratigraphic map revealed that not only the various deposits produced during the 1902 event were easily
differentiated, but that older eruptive products were identified, suggesting that this approach may be used for rapid hazard
evaluation of historically active tropical volcanoes.
Received: 22 January 1996 / Accepted: 26 July 1996 相似文献
16.
High-resolution bathymetric mapping has shown that submarine flat-topped volcanic cones, morphologically similar to ones
on the deep sea floor and near mid-ocean ridges, are common on or near submarine rift zones of Kilauea, Kohala (or Mauna Kea),
Mahukona, and Haleakala volcanoes. Four flat-topped cones on Kohala were explored and sampled with the Pisces V submersible in October 1998. Samples show that flat-topped cones on rift zones are constructed of tholeiitic basalt erupted
during the shield stage. Similarly shaped flat-topped cones on the northwest submarine flank of Ni'ihau are apparently formed
of alkalic basalt erupted during the rejuvenated stage. Submarine postshield-stage eruptions on Hilo Ridge, Mahukona, Hana
Ridge, and offshore Ni'ihau form pointed cones of alkalic basalt and hawaiite. The shield stage flat-topped cones have steep
(∼25°) sides, remarkably flat horizontal tops, basal diameters of 1–3 km, and heights <300 m. The flat tops commonly have
either a low mound or a deep crater in the center. The rejuvenated-stage flat-topped cones have the same shape with steep
sides and flat horizontal tops, but are much larger with basal diameters up to 5.5 km and heights commonly greater than 200 m.
The flat tops have a central low mound, shallow crater, or levees that surrounded lava ponds as large as 1 km across. Most
of the rejuvenated-stage flat-topped cones formed on slopes <10° and formed adjacent semicircular steps down the flank of
Ni'ihau, rather than circular structures. All the flat-topped cones appear to be monogenetic and formed during steady effusive
eruptions lasting years to decades. These, and other submarine volcanic cones of similar size and shape, apparently form as
continuously overflowing submarine lava ponds. A lava pond surrounded by a levee forms above a sea-floor vent. As lava continues
to flow into the pond, the lava flow surface rises and overflows the lowest point on the levee, forming elongate pillow lava
flows that simultaneously build the rim outward and upward, but also dam and fill in the low point on the rim. The process
repeats at the new lowest point, forming a circular structure with a flat horizontal top and steep pillowed margins. There
is a delicate balance between lava (heat) supply to the pond and cooling and thickening of the floating crust. Factors that
facilitate construction of such landforms include effusive eruption of lava with low volatile contents, moderate to high confining
pressure at moderate to great ocean depth, long-lived steady eruption (years to decades), moderate effusion rates (probably
ca. 0.1 km3/year), and low, but not necessarily flat, slopes. With higher effusion rates, sheet flows flood the slope. With lower effusion
rates, pillow mounds form. Hawaiian shield-stage eruptions begin as fissure eruptions. If the eruption is too brief, it will
not consolidate activity at a point, and fissure-fed flows will form a pond with irregular levees. The pond will solidify
between eruptive pulses if the eruption is not steady. Lava that is too volatile rich or that is erupted in too shallow water
will produce fragmental and highly vesicular lava that will accumulate to form steep pointed cones, as occurs during the post-shield
stage. The steady effusion of lava on land constructs lava shields, which are probably the subaerial analogs to submarine
flat-topped cones but formed under different cooling conditions.
Received: 30 September 1999 / Accepted: 9 March 2000 相似文献
17.
To test the potential of heat flux prospecting in active volcanic areas using shallow temperature data taken along vertical
profiles, we carried out two thermal profile surveys, one not far from Yasur cone on Tanna Island, and another inside the
caldera of Ambrym (New Hebrides arc, southwestern Pacific). The basic steady heat flux of internal volcanic origin was determined,
taking into account both conductive and convective heat transfers. At both locations there exists, over small distances, significant
differences in the heat flux. These differences correspond to shallow sources of heat. The use of a network of vertical profiles
allowed: (a) heat flux mapping; (b) location of shallow volcanic heat sources; and (c) observation of the detailed structure
of the heat release at quiescent but active volcanoes.
Received: 18 July 1997 / Accepted: 13 May 1998 相似文献
18.
Estimating silicic lava vesicularity with thermal remote sensing: a new technique for volcanic mapping and monitoring 总被引:2,自引:0,他引:2
Remote monitoring of active lava domes provides insights into the duration of continued lava extrusion and detection of potentially
associated explosive activity. On inactive flows, variations in surface texture ranging from dense glass to highly vesicular
pumice can be related to emplacement time, volatile content, and internal structure. Pumiceous surface textures also produce
changes in thermal emission spectra that are clearly distinguishable using remote sensing. Spectrally, the textures describe
a continuum consisting of two pure end members, obsidian and vesicles. The distinct spectral features of obsidian are commonly
muted in pumice due to overprinting by the vesicles, which mimic spectrally neutral blackbody emitters. Assuming that this
energy combines linearly in direct proportion to the percentage of vesicles, the surface vesicularity can be estimated by
modeling the pumice spectrum as a linear combination of the glass and blackbody spectra. Based on this discovery, a linear
retrieval model using a least-squares fitting approach was applied to airborne thermal infrared data of the Little Glass Mountain
and Crater Glass rhyolite flows at Medicine Lake Volcano (California) as a case study. The model produced a vesicularity image
of the flow with values from 0 to ∼70%, which can be grouped into three broad textural classes: dense obsidian, finely vesicular
pumice, and coarsely vesicular pumice. Values extracted from the image compare well with those derived from SEM analysis of
collected samples as well as with previously reported results. This technique provides the means to accurately map the areal
distributions of these textures, resulting in significantly different values from those derived using aerial photographs.
If applied to actively deforming domes, this technique will provide volcanologists with an opportunity to monitor dome-wide
degassing and eruptive potential in near-real-time. In July 1999 such an effort will be possible for the first time when repetitive,
global, multispectral thermal infrared data become available with the launch of the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and
Reflectance Radiometer (ASTER) instrument aboard the Earth Observing System satellite.
Received: 25 June 1998 / Accepted: 14 December 1998 相似文献
19.
Yuri Taran Tobias P. Fischer Boris Pokrovsky Yuji Sano Maria Aurora Armienta Jose Luis Macias 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1998,59(6):436-449
The 1982 eruption of El Chichón volcano ejected more than 1 km3 of anhydrite-bearing trachyandesite pyroclastic material to form a new 1-km-wide and 300-m-deep crater and uncovered the
upper 500 m of an active volcano-hydrothermal system. Instead of the weak boiling-point temperature fumaroles of the former
lava dome, a vigorously boiling crater spring now discharges / 20 kg/s of Cl-rich (∼15 000 mg/kg) and sulphur-poor ( / 200 mg/kg
of SO4), almost neutral (pH up to 6.7) water with an isotopic composition close to that of subduction-type magmatic water (δD=–15‰,
δ18O=+6.5‰). This spring, as well as numerous Cl-free boiling springs discharging a mixture of meteoric water with fumarolic
condensates, feed the crater lake, which, compared with values in 1983, is now much more diluted (∼3000 mg/kg of Cl vs 24 030 mg/kg),
less acidic (pH=2.6 vs 0.56) and contains much lower amounts of S ( / 200 mg/kg of SO4, vs 3550 mg/kg) with δ34S=0.5–4.2‰ (+17‰ in 1983). Agua Caliente thermal waters, on the southeast slope of the volcano, have an outflow rate of approximately
100 kg/s of 71 °C Na–Ca–Cl water and are five times more concentrated than before the eruption (B. R. Molina, unpublished
data). Relative N2, Ar and He gas concentrations suggest extensional tectonics for the El Chichón volcanic centre. The 3He/4He and 4He/20Ne ratios in gases from the crater fumaroles (7.3Ra, 2560) and Agua Caliente hot springs (5.3Ra, 44) indicate a strong magmatic contribution. However, relative concentrations of reactive species are typical of equilibrium
in a two-phase boiling aquifer. Sulphur and C isotopic data indicate highly reducing conditions within the system, probably
associated with the presence of buried vegetation resulting from the 1982 eruption. All Cl-rich waters at El Chichón have
a common source. This water has the appearence of a "partially matured" magmatic fluid: condensed magmatic vapour neutralized
by interaction with fresh volcaniclastic deposits and depleted in S due to anhydrite precipitation. Shallow ground waters
emerging around the volcano from the thick cover of fresh pumice deposits (Red waters) are Ca–SO4–rich and have a negative oxygen isotopic shift, probably due to ongoing formation of clay at low temperatures.
Received: 21 July 1997 / Accepted: 4 December 1997 相似文献
20.
Stephen J. Matthews Moyra C. Gardeweg R. Stephen J. Sparks 《Bulletin of Volcanology》1997,59(1):72-82
Lascar Volcano (5592 m; 23°22'S, 67°44'W) entered a new period of vigorous activity in 1984, culminating in a major explosive
eruption in April 1993. Activity since 1984 has been characterised by cyclic behaviour with recognition of four cycles up
to the end of 1993. In each cycle a lava dome is extruded in the active crater, accompanied by vigorous degassing through
high-temperature, high-velocity fumaroles distributed on and around the dome. The fumaroles are the source of a sustained
steam plume above the volcano. The dome then subsides back into the conduit. During the subsidence phase the velocity and
gas output of the fumaroles decrease, and the cycle is completed by violent explosive activity. Subsidence of both the dome
and the crater floor is accommodated by movement on concentric, cylindrical or inward-dipping conical fractures. The observations
are consistent with a model in which gas loss from the dome is progressively inhibited during a cycle and gas pressure increases
within and below the lava dome, triggering a large explosive eruption. Factors that can lead to a decrease in gas loss include
a decrease in magma permeability by foam collapse, reduction in permeability due to precipitation of hydrothermal minerals
in the pores and fractures within the dome and in country rock surrounding the conduit, and closure of open fractures during
subsidence of the dome and crater floor. Dome subsidence may be a consequence of reduction in magma porosity (foam collapse)
as degassing occurs and pressurisation develops as the permeability of the dome and conduit system decreases. Superimposed
upon this activity are small explosive events of shallow origin. These we interpret as subsidence events on the concentric
fractures leading to short-term pressure increases just below the crater floor.
Received: 12 December 1996 / Accepted: 6 May 1997 相似文献