Different Responses of Vegetation to Frozen Ground Degradation in the Source Region of the Yellow River from 1980 to 2018

Frozen ground degradation under a warming climate profoundly influences the growth of alpine vegetation in the source region of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. This study investigated spatiotemporal variations in the frozen ground distribution, the active layer thickness(ALT) of permafrost(PF) soil and the soil freeze depth(SFD) in seasonally frozen soil from 1980 to 2018 using the temperature at the top of permafrost(TTOP) model and Stefan equation. We compared the effects of these variations on vegetation growth among different frozen ground types and vegetation types in the source region of the Yellow River(SRYR). The results showed that approximately half of the PF area(20.37% of the SRYR) was projected to degrade into seasonally frozen ground(SFG) during the past four decades; furthermore, the areal average ALT increased by 3.47 cm/yr, and the areal average SFD decreased by 0.93 cm/yr from 1980 to 2018. Accordingly, the growing season Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI) presented an increasing trend of 0.002/10 yr, and the increase rate and proportion of areas with NDVI increase were largest in the transition zone where PF degraded to SFG(the PF to SFG zone). A correlation analysis indicated that variations in ALT and SFD in the SRYR were significantly correlated with increases of NDVI in the growing season. However, a rapid decrease in SFD(-1.4 cm/10 yr) could have reduced the soil moisture and, thus, decreased the NDVI. The NDVI for most vegetation types exhibited a significant positive correlation with ALT and a negative correlation with SFD. However, the steppe NDVI exhibited a significant negative correlation with the SFD in the PF to SFG zone but a positive correlation in the SFG zone, which was mainly limited by water condition because of different change rates of the SFD.     

Aboveground biomass of the alpine shrub ecosystems in Three-River Source Region of the Tibetan Plateau

Though aboveground biomass (AGB) has an important contribution to the global carbon cycle, the information about storage and climatic effects of AGB is scare in Three-River Source Region (TRSR) shrub ecosystems. This study investigated AGB storage and its climatic controls in the TRSR alpine shrub ecosystems using data collected from 23 sites on the Tibetan Plateau from 2011 to 2013. We estimated the AGB storage (both shrub layer biomass and grass layer biomass) in the alpine shrubs as 37.49 Tg, with an average density of 1447.31 g m^-2. Biomass was primarily accumulated in the shrub layer, which accounted for 92% of AGB, while the grass layer accounted for only 8%. AGB significantly increased with the mean annual temperature (P < 0.05). The effects of the mean annual precipitation on AGB were not significant. These results suggest that temperature, rather than precipitation, has significantly effects on of aboveground vegetation growth in the TRSR alpine shrub ecosystems. The actual and potential increase in AGB density was different due to global warming varies among different regions of the TRSR. We conclude that long-term monitoring of dynamic changes is necessary to improve the accuracy estimations of potential AGB carbon sequestration across the TRSR alpine shrub ecosystems.     

Mapping the vegetation distribution of the permafrost zone on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

In this paper,an updated vegetation map of the permafrost zone in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau(QTP) was delineated.The vegetation map model was extracted from vegetation sampling with remote sensing(RS) datasets by decision tree method.The spatial resolution of the map is 1 km×1 km,and in it the alpine swamp meadow is firstly distinguished in the high-altitude areas.The results showed that the total vegetated area in the permafrost zone of the QTP is 1,201,751 km~2.In the vegetated region,50,260 km~2 is the areas of alpine swamp meadow,583,909 km~2 for alpine meadow,332,754 km~2 for alpine steppe,and 234,828 km~2 for alpine desert.This updated vegetation map in permafrost zone of QTP could provide more details about the distribution of alpine vegetation types for studying the vegetation mechanisms in the land surface processes of highaltitude areas.     

青藏高原典型植被生长季遥感模型提取分析

物候变化是衡量全球气候变化最直接、敏感的指示器,针对青藏高原这个独特地域单元上特殊的高寒植被进行关键物候期遥感提取模型及植被物候时空变化的研究具有重要的意义。本文首先以反距离加权空间插值算法与Savitzky-Golay滤波算法相结合的数据重建模型获得高质量2003-2012年青藏高原MODIS归一化植被指数(NDVI)数据。在此数据基础上,分别利用动态阈值法、最大变化斜率法、logistic曲线拟合法3种遥感植被生长季提取模型,对青藏高原地区两种典型植被的生长季(SOS生长季开始期,EOS生长季结束期,LOS生长季长度)进行提取。通过对3种模型提取结果的对比分析,并结合日均温模型对提取结果的验证发现,动态阈值法为青藏高原地区典型植被生长季的最优遥感提取模型。该模型对近10 a的高分辨率典型高寒植被物候参量的反演及时空变化特征分析表明,受青藏高原水热及海拔梯度的影响,青藏高原植被物候变化呈现出从东南向西北的空间分异规律,随春季温度的升高,近10 a来青藏高原高寒草地总体呈现生长季开始期(SOS)提前(0.248 d/a)的趋势。     

Spatial and temporal change patterns of freeze-thaw erosion in the three-river source region under the stress of climate warming

The three-river source region(TRSR), located in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China, suffers from serious freeze-thaw(FT) erosion in China. Considering the unique eco-environment and the driving factors of the FT process in the TRSR, we introduce the driving force factors of FT erosion(rainfall erosivity and wind field intensity during FT period) and precipitation during the FT period(indicating the phase-changed water content). The objective was to establish an improved evaluation method of FT erosion in the TRSR. The method has good applicability in the study region with an overall precision of 92%. The spatial and temporal changes of FT erosion from 2000 to 2015 are analyzed. Results show that FT erosion is widely distributed in the TRSR, with slight and mild erosion being the most widely distributed, followed by moderate erosion. Among the three sub-regions, the source region of the Yellow River has the slightest erosion intensity, whereas the erosion intensity of the source region of Yangtze River is the most severe. A slight improvement can be observed in the condition of FTerosion over the whole study region from 2000 to 2015. Vegetation coverage is the dominant factor affecting the intensity of FT erosion in the zones with sparse vegetation or bare land, whereas the climate factors play an important role in high vegetation coverage area. Slopes28° also have a significant effect on the intensity of FT erosion in the zones. The results can provide a scientific basis for the prevention and management of the soil FT erosion in the TRSR.     

亚热带福建省森林生长季与气温、降水相关性的遥感分析

植物生长季的变化反映了全球气候变化对生态环境的影响。本研究以2000-2006年间MODIS-NDVI影像数据集,使用TIMESAT软件从归一化植被指数（NDVI）时间序列中,分别提取福建省不同森林植被的生长季开始日期（Start of Season,SOS）、生长季结束日期（End of Season,EOS）和生长季长度（Length of season,LOS）等物候参数,并与全省尺度的气温与降水量进行相关分析。结果表明：不同森林类型NDVI与当月月均气温之间具有较显著的相关性（R²为0.72-0.79,p<0.01）,同期温度变化对植被生长的影响相对于降水量更重要;而植被生长对降水量的响应存在大约2个月的时滞效应（R²为0.54-0.75,p<0.01）,说明前期的降水累积对于后续植被生长有较显著影响。福建省森林植被生长季持续时间约213~223 d,开始于每年4月初到4月中旬（第98~103 d）,结束于11月中旬前后（第316~321 d）。其中,南亚热带森林生长季长于中亚热带森林,相同气候条件下的阔叶林生长季时间略长于针叶林。另外,春季（2-4月）气温变化是导致福建省内2个气候带森林生长季开始时间、生长季结束时间及生长季长度变化的关键因素,而伴随春季温度升高,植被生长季开始时间提前（R²为0.83,p<0.01）,同时生长季长度延长（R²为0.80,p<0.01）。7 a间,生长季持续时间呈现微弱延长趋势,总体延长幅度为2.4~3.1 d。     

三江源区不同退化程度的高寒草甸光谱特征分析

 青海三江源区是长江、黄河、澜沧江3大河流的发源地。草地是该区域的主体生态系统,高寒草甸是其主要类型。近30年来,三江源地区草地发生了大面积的退化,不同退化程度的高寒草甸光谱特征是高寒草甸遥感分类和退化监测的重要依据。2009年8月作者在青海省三江源区对高山嵩草、矮嵩草和藏嵩草3种未退化高寒草甸,以及4种不同退化程度的高山嵩草草甸,进行了地面光谱测量和草地样方调查。同时对实测光谱曲线进行了比较,提取和分析了它们在557nm、675nm和760nm处反射率,以及"红边"斜率。结果表明,3种高寒草甸的光谱曲线,以及4种退化程度高寒草甸和未退化高寒草甸的光谱曲线在557nm处的反射率差异较小,在675nm和760nm处的反射率及"红边"斜率存在明显差异,能有效区分高寒草甸,可为高寒草甸遥感自动分类和退化监测提供依据。不同退化程度的高寒草甸地上生物量与其光谱曲线的"红边"斜率和归一化植被指数(NDVI)线性拟合的确定系数分别为0.93和0.87,其相关性较好,可用于高寒草甸地上生物量的估算。本文提取的光谱反射率的"红边"斜率不仅能有效区分3种典型高寒草甸和不同退化程度的高寒草甸,且与高寒草甸地上生物量的关系优于NDVI,对高寒草甸识别分类,退化监测和生物量估算有重要意义。     

Effect of Mathematical Expression of Vegetation Indices on the Estimation of Phenology Trends from Satellite Data

Vegetation indices(VIs) from satellite remote sensing have been extensively applied to analyze the trends of vegetation phenology. In this paper, the NDVI(normalized difference vegetation index) and SR(simple ration), which are calculated from the same spectral bands of MODIS data with different mathematical expressions, were used to extract the start date(SOS) and end date(EOS) of the growing season in northern China and Mongolia from 2000 to 2015. The results show that different vegetation indices would lead to differences in vegetation phenology especially in their trends. The mean SOS from NDVI is 15.5 d earlier than that from SR, and the mean EOS from NDVI is 13.4 d later than that from SR. It should be noted that 16.3% of SOS and 17.2% of EOS derived from NDVI and SR exhibit opposite trends. The phenology dates and trends from NDVI are also inconsistent with those of SR among various vegetation types. These differences based on different mathematical expressions in NDVI and SR result from different resistances to noise and sensitivities to spectral signal at different stage of growing season. NDVI is prone to be effected more by low noise and is less sensitive to dense vegetation. While SR is affected more by high noise and is less sensitive to sparse vegetation. Therefore, vegetation indices are one of the uncertainty sources of remote sensing-based phenology, and appropriate indices should be used to detect vegetation phenology for different growth stages and estimate phenology trends.     

不同数据源归一化植被指数在中国北方草原区的应用比较

中国北方草原区生产力在区域碳水循环、农牧业发展中举足轻重。归一化植被指数（Normalized Difference Vegetation Index,NDVI）广泛应用于生产力的计算,然而目前来源众多的NDVI数据反映中国北方草原植被时空动态的一致性仍未可知。本研究利用2000—2015年3个来源NDVI数据集（MODIS NDVI、GIMMS NDVI和SPOT NDVI）并以国际上公认的数据准确性较高的MODIS NDVI为基准对比分析了中国北方草原区NDVI时空动态的一致性,并选取适宜的NDVI产品揭示研究区NDVI长期的时空格局。结果表明：整个中国北方草原区以及部分草原类型（高寒草甸、高寒草原、高寒荒漠、温带荒漠草原）GIMMS NDVI和MODIS NDVI 2套数据集无论是数值范围,还是年际波动和变化趋势具有较高一致性（二者在高寒草甸、高寒草原、高寒荒漠、温带荒漠草原的相关系数分别为0.60、0.47、0.51、0.74）,而SPOT NDVI数值远高于其他2个数据集,尤其是在青藏高原草原区,SPOT NDVI数值每年较另外两套数据集约偏高0.15,表明该区域使用SPOT数据应慎重。部分温带草原类型（典型草原和草甸草原）GIMMS NDVI和SPOT NDVI数据集在年际波动以及变化趋势上具有较高的一致性（相关系数分别为0.85和0.60）,但温带草原区3种数据集NDVI数值范围整体相差不大,小于0.06。基于上述结果,本研究进一步采用时间序列最长且与MODIS NDVI一致性最好的GIMMS NDVI分析了研究区NDVI的时空动态,发现1982—2015年中国北方草原区NDVI整体呈增加趋势,25%的区域达显著水平（p<0.05）,主要集中在温带草原区;高寒草原区NDVI大部分区域变化不显著且有一定比例的区域NDVI呈显著下降趋势。本研究可以为模型数据集选择和预测中国北方草原区植被对未来气候变化的响应提供科学依据。     

Frozen ground and periglacial processes relationship in temperate high mountains: a case study at Monte Perdido-Tucarroya area(The Pyrenees,Spain)

Seasonally frozen ground,mountain permafrost and cryogenic geomorphological processes are important components of the Pyrenean high mountains.This work presents the results of a study on the distribution of frozen ground in a marginal and paraglacial environment of temperate mountains.An inventory was made of landforms and indicators of frozen ground,and frozen ground was mapped accordingly.During 2014 and 2016 ground temperatures and thermal regimes were monitored,basal temperatures of snow-cover(BTS)were measured and a thermal map was drawn.Differential thermal behaviours were detected among different elevations and slope orientations.Periglacial processes are the most widespread,in which frost weathering and nivation,together with gelifluction and cryoturbation,are the most efficient processes;the latter two are generally linked to the presence of frozen ground.The fall in air and ground temperatures with altitude,slope orientations,and snowpack thickness and evolution determine ground thermal regimes.In the study area,three types of thermal regimes were established:climate-controlled,snowcover-controlled,and frozen ground-controlled.Seasonally frozen ground occurs across a broad range of elevation between 2650 and 3075 m asl,whereas possible permafrost only occurs above 2750 m asl.     

The influence of seasonal snow on soil thermal and water dynamics under different vegetation covers in a permafrost region

Seasonal snow is one of the most important influences on the development and distribution of permafrost and the hydrothermal regime in surface soil. Alpine meadow, which constitutes the main land type in permafrost regions of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, was selected to study the influence of seasonal snow on the temperature and moisture in active soil layers under different vegetation coverage. Monitoring sites for soil moisture and temperature were constructed to observe the hydrothermal processes in active soil layers under different vegetation cover with seasonal snow cover variation for three years from 2010 to 2012. Differences in soil temperature and moisture in areas of diverse vegetation coverage with varying levels of snow cover were analyzed using active soil layer water and temperature indices. The results indicated that snow cover greatly influenced the hydrothermal dynamics of the active soil layer in alpine meadows. In the snow manipulation experiment with a snow depth greater than 15 cm, the snow cover postponed both the freeze-fall and thawrise onset times of soil temperature and moisture in alpine LC （lower vegetation coverage） meadows and of soil moisture in alpine HC （higher vegetation coverage） meadows; however, the opposite response occurred for soil temperatures of alpine HC meadows,where the entire melting period was extended by advancing the thaw-rise and delaying the freeze-fall onset time of the soil temperature. Snow cover resulted in a decreased amplitude and rate of variation in soil temperature, for both alpine HC meadows and alpine LC meadows, whereas the distinct influence of snow cover on the amplitude and rate of soil moisture variation occurred at different soil layers with different vegetation coverages. Snow cover increased the soil moisture of alpine grasslands during thawing periods. The results confirmed that the annual hydrothermal dynamics of active layers in permafrost were subject to the synergistic actions of both snow cover and vegetation coverage.     

Modelling plant canopy effects on water-heat exchange in the freezingthawing processes of active layer on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

The effect of vegetation on the water-heat exchange in the freezing-thawing processes of active layer is one of the key issues in the study of land surface processes and in predicting the response of alpine ecosystems to climate change in permafrost regions. In this study, we used the simultaneous heat and water model to investigate the effects of plant canopy on surface and subsurface hydrothermal dynamics in the Fenghuoshan area of the QinghaiTibet Plateau by changing the leaf area index(LAI) and keeping other variables constant. Results showed that the sensible heat, latent heat and net radiation are increased with an increase in the LAI. However, the ground heat flux decreased with an increasing LAI. The annual total evapotranspiration and vegetation transpiration ranged from-16% to 9% and-100% to 15%, respectively, in response to extremes of doubled and zero LAI, respectively. There was a negative feedback between vegetation and the volumetric unfrozen water content at 0.2 m through changing evapotranspiration. The simulation results of soil temperature and moisture suggest that better vegetation conditions are conducive to maintaining the thermal stability of the underlying permafrost, and the advanced initial thawing time and increasing thawing rate of soil ice with the increase in the LAI may have a great influence on the timing and magnitude of supra-permafrost groundwater. This study quantifies the impact of vegetation change on surface and subsurface hydrothermal processes and provides a basic understanding for evaluating the impact of vegetation degradation on the water-heat exchange in permafrost regions under climate change.     

Spatial-temporal changes of vegetation cover in Guizhou Province,Southern China

Guizhou Province is an important karst area in the world and a fragile ecological area in China. Ecological risk assessment is very necessary to be conducted in this region. This study investigates different characteristics of the spatial-temporal changes of vegetation cover in Guizhou Province of Southern China using the data set of SPOT VEGETATION(1999–2015) at spatial resolution of 1-km and temporal resolution of 10-day. The coefficient of variation, the Theil-Sen median trend analysis, and the Mann-Kendall test are used to investigate the spatial-temporal change of vegetation cover and its future trend. Results show that: 1) the spatial distribution pattern of vegetation cover in Guizhou Plateau is high in the east whereas low in the west. The average annual normalized difference vegetation index(NDVI) from west to east is higher than that from south to north. 2) Average annual NDVI improved obviously in the past 17 years. The growth rate of average annual NDVI is 0.028/10 yr, which is slower than that of vegetation in the country(0.048/10 yr) from 1998 to 2007. Average annual NDVI in karst area is lower than that in non-karst area. However, the growing rate of average annual NDVI in karst area(0.030/10 yr) is faster than that in non-karst area(0.023/10 yr), indicating that vegetation coverage increases more rapidly in karst area. 3) Vegetation coverage in the study area is stable overall, but fluctuates in the local scales. 4) Vegetation coverage presents a continuous increasing trend. The Hurst exponent of NDVI in different vegetation types has an obvious threshold in various elevations. 5) The proportion of vegetation cover with sustainable increase is higher than that of vegetation cover with sustainable decrease. The improvement in vegetation cover may expand to most parts of the study area.     

泛北极多年冻土及重大线性工程稳定性状况

泛北极是中国"一带一路"倡议的主要合作示范区域,已有的重大线性工程及新的基础设施建设均面临着与多年冻土相关的冻融灾害及工程病害问题.在全球气候变暖及人类活动增强的背景下,泛北极多年冻土主要呈现地温升高、活动层厚度增加趋势,且低温多年冻土地温升高更加明显,20世纪70年代以来年平均地温(MAGT)升温最高可达3℃;自北向...     

融入土壤湿度指标的青藏高原近地表土壤冻融机器学习监测算法

青藏高原作为中低纬度地区最大的高山冻土区,多年冻土和季节冻土广泛分布。高精度的地表冻融监测结果对研究该区域的水热交换、碳氮循环和土壤冻融侵蚀非常重要。本文基于4个青藏高原典型地区的土壤温湿度观测网数据,开展利用LightGBM算法和随机森林算法进行土壤冻融循环监测的研究。在构建土壤冻融监测模型的过程中,发现土壤湿度是影响冻融判别的一个关键因子。使用AMSR2亮温数据和ERA5-Land土壤湿度数据,基于两种机器学习算法判别地表冻融状态,将结果与传统冻融判别式算法进行对比分析。结果表明：相比冻融判别式算法,LightGBM算法在白天和夜间的总体判对率提高了12.09%;14.45%,随机森林算法在白天和夜间的总体判对率提高了13.23%和14.96%。近80%的错分样本分布在-4.0℃～4.0℃之间,说明2个机器学习算法能够识别出稳定的土壤冻结状态和融化状态。另外,LightGBM算法和随机森林算法得到的日冻融转换天数的平均RMSE降低了112.82和117.00;冻结天数的平均RMSE降低了47.87和53.96;融化天数的平均RMSE降低了37.10和39.80。同时,基于随机森林算...     

Performance comparison of permafrost models in Wudaoliang Basin,Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China

Knowledge of the spatial distribution of permafrost and the effects of climate on ground temperature are important for land use and infrastructure development on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP). Different permafrost models have been developed to simulate the ground temperature and active layer thickness (ALT). In this study, Temperature at Top of Permafrost (TTOP) model, Kudryavtsev model and modified Stefan solution were evaluated against detailed field measurements at four distinct field sites in the Wudaoliang Basin to better understand the applicability of permafrost models. Field data from 2012 to 2014 showed that there were notable differences in observed ground temperatures and ALTs within and among the sites. The TTOP model is relatively simple, however, when driven by averaged input values, it produced more accurate permafrost surface temperature (Tps) than the Kudryavtsev model. The modified Stefan solution resulted in a satisfactory accuracy of 90%, which was better than the Kudryavtsev model for estimating ALTs. The modified Stefan solution had the potential of being applied to climate-change studies in the future.Furthermore, additional field investigations over longer periods focusing on hydrology, which has significant influence on permafrost thaw, are necessary. These efforts should employ advanced measurement techniques to obtain adequate and extensive local parameters that will help improve model accuracy.     

青藏高原月NDVI时空动态变化及其对气候变化的 响应

青藏高原脆弱的高寒植被对外界干扰十分敏感,使其成为研究植被对气候变化响应的理想区域之一。青藏高原气候变化剧烈,在较短的合成时间研究气候变化对植被的影响十分必要。因此,本文利用GIMMS NDVI时间序列数据集,研究了1982-2012年青藏高原生长季月尺度植被生长的时空动态变化,探讨了其与气温、降水量和日照时数等气候因子的响应关系。结果表明：在区域尺度上,除8月外,其他各月份植被均呈增加趋势,显著增加多发生在4-7月和9月;大部分月份的NDVI增加速率随着时段的延长显著减小,表明NDVI增加趋势放缓;在像元尺度上,月NDVI显著变化的区域多呈增加趋势,但显著减少范围的扩张多快于显著增加。4月和7月植被生长主要是受气温和日照时数共同作用,6月和9月受气温的控制,而8月则主要受降水量的影响。长时间序列NDVI数据集的出现为采用嵌套时段研究植被生长变化趋势奠定了前提,而植被活动变化趋势的持续性则有助于形象表征植被活动变化过程、深入理解植被对气候变化的响应和预测植被未来生长变化趋势。由此推测,青藏高原月NDVI未来增加趋势总体上趋于缓和,但在像元尺度显著变化的区域趋于增加。     

PERMAFROST DEGENERATION IN THE EAST OF QINGHAI-XIZANG PLATEAU

ＰＥＲＭＡＦＲＯＳＴＤＥＧＥＮＥＲＡＴＩＯＮＩＮＴＨＥＥＡＳＴＯＦＱＩＮＧＨＡＩ－ＸＩＺＡＮＧＰＬＡＴＥＡＵ￥ＺｈｕＬｉｎｎａｎ；ＷｕＺｉｗａｎｇ；ＬｉｕＹｏｎｇｚｈｉ；ＬｉＤｏｎｇｑｉｎｇ（ＳｔａｔｅＫｅｙＬａｂｏｒａｔｏｒｙｏｆＦｒｏｚｅｎＳｏｉ...     

中国西北地区植被NDVI的时空变化及其影响因子分析

利用GIMMS/NDVI数据分析了中国西北地区1982-2006年植被NDVI时空变化特征及其影响因子。近25年来,中国西北地区年均植被NDVI增速为0.5%/10a,并存在明显的空间差异。天山、阿尔泰山、祁连山、青海的中东部等地区植被NDVI显著增加;青海南部地区、陕西和宁夏交界地区、甘肃部分地区,以及新疆部分地区的植被NDVI下降。从不同植被类型看:林地、草地和耕地的年均NDVI都在提高。研究表明:中国西北地区植被NDVI变化是各种自然和人为因素综合作用的结果。植被NDVI与气温、降水的年际变化整体上都呈弱的正相关。但与其年内变化则都呈显著的线性关系,当月均温量超过20℃时,植被NDVI呈下降趋势;当月降水量在0¹00mm期间,植被NDVI随降水线性增长,当月降水量超过100mm之后,不再有明显的增长趋势。农业生产水平提高和植被生态建设等人类活动对西北地区植被NDVI增加有重要影响。