过去1000年气候模拟比较和机制分析

利用中等复杂程度模式MPM­2进行的多情景1000年气候模拟试验和全球海气耦合气候模式ECHO­G进行的1000年长时间积分气候模拟试验结果,分析了过去1000年全球气候变化特征及其与各强迫因子变化的关系,并与部分温度重建资料作了对比,探讨了近千年气候变化的原因和驱动因子。模拟和重建结果均反映出了大约出现在1000～1300年的中世纪暖期、1300～1850年的小冰期和1860年之后的全球升温期。对于1300～1850年的小冰期和1860年之后的升温期,模拟和重建的趋势基本一致,尤其是1670～1710年Maunder太阳黑子最小期时,模拟和重建结果吻合很好。各因子及其组合的强迫试验表明,在不同典型气候时期,强迫因子的作用是不一样的。1000～1300年的中世纪暖期,模拟与重建资料存在一定的位相差异和幅度差异。从整体上来看,模式得出的温度距平值要小于重建温度距平值。在1000年尺度上,太阳辐射、火山活动和温室气体对全球温度变化都有重要意义,但表现的时间不同。在最近百年尺度上,温室气体含量的变化对温度的变化起着相对更为重要的作用。     

近千年全球气候变化的长积分模拟试验

近千年全球气候变化的长积分模拟试验是全球气候模拟研究的新领域,它不仅将现代器测资料与过去代用指标序列进行了有机的衔接,而且对过去百年和年代际尺度的气候变化可进行动力学解释,探讨其主要控制因素及其导致的区域响应差异。由于这类长积分模拟对计算机技术和气候模式本身的要求较高,目前能进行这类研究的国家为数不多。重点介绍了德国马普气象研究所的全球海气耦合气候模式ECHO G,以及利用该模式进行的千年长积分模拟试验结果。首先,应用全球120年的器测资料对模拟结果进行了检验,论证了该模型较强的气候模拟能力;其次,根据全球地表2 m气温的千年模拟结果,揭示了中世纪暖期—小冰期—20世纪暖期三段式气候变化时段,然后讨论了中世纪暖期和小冰期鼎盛期全球及中国的温度分布特点;最后根据对各控制因子的拟合分析与比较,初步揭示了近千年来的温度变化主要受太阳有效辐射的变化控制,而温室气体含量的增加对100年来温度的快速上升起着主导作用。      

青藏高原纳木错湖近150年来气候变化的湖泊沉积记录

高海拔地区的纳木错湖是研究过去气候环境变化的理想场所。本文结合附近气象站点实测数据与纳木错浅湖芯的研究结果,筛选出适用的气候环境代用指标,并对当地过去近150年来的气候变化记录进行重建。其结果显示,19世纪50年代至20世纪,以偏暖湿为主;20世纪初至20世纪50年代,该阶段气候总体上呈现出冷干特点,并从20世纪20年代左右逐渐向暖湿气候过渡;20世纪中叶至2005年,这期间气候有一定波动,但整体上以气温上升为主要趋势,在降水略减的情况下湖泊并未出现萎缩,表明气温升高可能导致冰川消融加快从而对入湖径流有一定补给作用。     

全新世暖期鼎盛期与未来变暖情景下东亚夏季降水和气温变化对比

利用通用气候系统模式(Community Climate System Model,简称CCSM)全新世和21世纪气候模拟试验数据,对比分析了全新世暖期鼎盛期和RCP4.5(Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5,简称RCP4.5)未来变暖情景下东亚地区夏季地表气温和降水的空间分布特征,并探讨了两个暖期夏季气候变化的成因机制。结果表明:1)全新世东亚地区最暖的夏季出现在9 ka B.P.前后,这与地球轨道参数有关;2)RCP4.5温室气体排放情景下21世纪整个东亚地区的夏季平均地表气温均呈上升趋势,而在全新世暖期鼎盛期东亚地区的夏季地表气温呈现同心圆状分布;3)全新世暖期鼎盛期和未来变暖情景下东亚地区夏季降水的空间分布有明显差异,前者东亚地区的夏季降水呈现"南负北正"的偶极子分布形态,而后者呈三极子形势;前者东亚夏季降水的变化幅度明显强于后者;4)全新世暖期鼎盛期副高偏强,中国东部偏南气流较强;而在RCP4.5未来变暖情景下副高偏弱。     

SCL与中国东部气候年代际变化

据宇地磁耦合原理,利用太阳黑子周期长度(SCL)的变化及其与地磁场(文中主要考虑地热)的关系,模拟计算并重建了中国东部历史时期的气温序列变化,除了个别时段外,模拟曲线与修正后的竺可桢曲线十分相似;分析了2500a来中国东部气候的年代际变化.结果表明,该曲线能较好地再现2500a来中国东部气候的冷暖变化.对竺氏曲线中有争议的几个冷暖时段,如公元150—350年的温暖期、1050—1150年的小气候适宜期等,模拟结果与后来研究者分析的结果相合.中唐至五代的气候冷暖交替变化不稳定.该曲线也能清晰地反映出小冰期中国东部气候各个时段的变化以及现代气候的变化趋势。     

区域气候模式水平分辨率对黄淮海流域当代气候模拟的影响

区域气候模式是进行流域尺度气候变化研究的重要工具,其中水平分辨率对流域模拟结果的影响亟待评估。本文使用区域气候模式RegCM4,在ERA-Interim再分析资料驱动下,进行2种水平分辨率（50 km和25 km）1990-2010年东亚区域的长时间连续积分模拟。通过与观测资料的对比,评估RegCM4对黄淮海流域的模拟性能,同时分析水平分辨率对模拟结果的影响。结果表明:① 2组模拟均可以较好地再现黄淮海流域冬季、夏季平均气温和降水的空间分布,以及气温和降水的年循环变化;对极端气候事件指数的分布模拟效果也较好,且对与气温有关的极端气候事件指数模拟效果优于与降水有关的极端气候事件指数。②与观测相比,也存在一定的偏差,如模拟的冬季气温存在冷偏差,夏季气温存在暖偏差,冬季、夏季降水在大部分地区偏多等。③ 2组模拟对比来看,对冬季、夏季平均气温的量级和空间分布,25 km模拟与观测更加接近;对冬季、夏季平均降水,50 km模拟与观测的空间相关系数分别为0.86和0.44,较25 km模拟有较大提高;对极端事件,2组模拟差别不大。模拟结果可为后续此版本模式在黄淮海流域气候变化研究中的应用提供参考。     

过去千年气候变化的数值模拟研究进展

在阐述千年气候变化研究意义的基础上,围绕着如何利用气候系统模式来对过去千年的气候变化进行归因模拟、以理解其中自然和人为因素的作用问题,总结和评述了国际上相关研究进展,进一步归纳了千年气候变化数值模拟中亟待解决的科学问题,重点包括千年气候演变中自然变率特征时段(即中世纪暖期和小冰期)与人类活动影响时段(即20世纪气候变暖)的气候差别,在中世纪暖期、小冰期和20世纪气候变暖这3个特征时段上,自然变化和人类活动影响的作用与机制比较、中国过去千年气候演变的模拟等,随后,扼要介绍了国家自然科学基金重大项目"中国地区树轮及千年气候变化研究"之课题"中国千年气候变化数值模拟与机理研究"的主要研究内容.     

基于CMIP6气候模式的新疆积雪深度时空格局研究

积雪深度的变化对地表水热平衡起着至关重要的作用。选用了国际耦合模式比较计划第六阶段（CMIP6）中目前情景比较齐全的五个全球气候模式,通过对比新疆地区1979—2014年积雪深度长时间序列数据集,评估了气候模式在新疆地区模拟积雪深度的模拟能力,接着预估了未来不同SSPs-RCPs情景下新疆地区在2021—2040年（近期）、2041—2060年（中期）、2081—2100年（末期）相对于基准期（1995—2014年）的积雪深度变化。气温和降水对积雪深度变化有着重要的影响,因此还分析了新疆地区到21世纪末期气温和降水的变化趋势。结果表明：订正后的气候模式模拟的积雪深度数据与观测数据的相关系数均达到0.8以上,其中1月至3月与观测数据的结果更为吻合。气候模式基本上能够反映积雪深度年内变化的基本特征,气候模式模拟的积雪深度空间分布和观测数据具有相似的特征。气温和降水在未来不同情景下均会波动上升,其中气温的增幅相对比较明显,达0.43 ℃·（10a）^-1,而降水的增幅为0.63 mm·（10a）^-1,新疆未来的气候总体上呈现出变暖变湿的趋势。新疆地区的平均积雪深度在未来不同时期相对基准期均呈增加的趋势。SSP1-1.9情景下,21世纪近期、中期和末期北部大部分地区的积雪深度将会有所增加;SSP1-2.6情景下,北部阿尔泰山地区的积雪深度在21世纪近期有所减小,但中期和末期将会有所增加;SSP2-4.5情景下,21世纪不同时期东部地区的积雪深度将会有所增加,北部和中部大部分地区在不同时期积雪深度将会变小;SSP3-7.0情景下,21世纪不同时期北部和西南地区的积雪深度将会普遍变小,东部地区的积雪深度将普遍增加;SSP4-3.4和SSP4-6.0情景下,21世纪不同时期西南昆仑山地区的积雪深度将会普遍变小,东部地区的积雪深度将普遍增加;SSP5-8.5情景下,北部阿尔泰山地区和东部地区的积雪深度将普遍增加。     

中国近500年来的气候模拟与重建资料对比

介绍了利用全球海气耦合气候模式ECHO G进行的小冰期以来的长时间积分气候模拟试验,并与中国区域温度重建资料作对比。共做了2个模拟试验：控制试验和真实强迫试验。首先将模拟结果与器测资料作对比,验证该模式模拟中国气候的能力;然后将模拟结果与中国10个区域重建的500年温度序列进行比较分析。均值、方差及EOF分析表明,对于1550年至今的时段,除了东北、新疆、西南地区外,其它地区模拟与重建序列的相关性尚好,相关的置信度超过90％;而对于1760年以来的时期,除了华南、西北、西南地区外,其它地区二者较为一致,相关的置信度均超过90％,表明气候模式ECHO G能捕捉到中国大部分地区温度的趋势及低频变化特征,也说明上述强迫条件是近500年来气候变化的主要控制因子。然而模拟的温度距平的空间差异性比重建资料的小,对于年代际、年际等短时间尺度的温度变化模拟与重建结果的吻合度较差。误差来自于重建和模拟两个方面。在重建资料方面,需要提高代用资料的代表性、精确性和可靠性;在模拟方面,应提高各强迫条件序列的精确性,同时应引入更多的强迫因子,如下垫面植被及工业气溶胶等。这样从两方面努力,才能更深入地刻划和认识中国历史气候演变及其成因机制问题。     

近千年来三个气候特征时期东亚夏季风的模拟对比

利用全球海气耦合气候模式ECHO-G的近千年连续积分资料,选取与降水关系较好的东亚夏季风指数,对不同气候特征时期的东亚环流及季风影响因子进行了探讨.结果表明用海陆热力差异定义的东亚夏季风指数Isun在年际尺度上较好地体现了长江流域及华北地区降水的变化,而利用850 hPa纬向风场定义的指数Iwang在年代际尺度上较好地体现了长江流域的降水变化.从不同气候特征时期的环流来看,中世纪暖期夏季风最强,东亚大陆降水明显偏多,现代暖期夏季风较之有所减弱,而小冰期则是夏季风最弱的时期,东亚大陆的降水明显偏少.不同气候特征时期夏季风指数与海温的相关表明,ENSO事件对东亚夏季风的影响在现代暖期有所增强,而与外部强迫因子的相关揭示出中世纪暖期有效太阳辐射变化是影响东亚夏季风变化的主要因子,现代暖期则是温室气体对夏季风的影响更重要.     

近千年来中国区域降水模拟与重建资料的对比分析

依据中国区域27年GPCP降水观测再分析资料、500年旱涝等级资料及近千年冰芯、树轮、湖芯等降水代用资料,对全球海气耦合气候模式ECHO G近千年积分模拟降水进行时空变化的对比分析,检验模式对中国地区降水的模拟性能。结果表明模拟降水较好体现了中国区域降水年平均和季节平均的分布型态,并在年代际变化上与历史记录一致。中国西部模拟降水呈现出与重建资料一致的准200年的百年际周期及20～30年左右的年代际周期,并与湖泊盐度的高低时段对应较好。总体而言,模式成功再现了观测及代用资料所体现的中国区域近千年降水的主要时空变化特征。EOF分析结果进一步揭示了3个不同气候特征时期模拟降水存在不同的区域分异特点。     

Study on the Relationship between Large Volcanic Eruptions and Temperature Variation Based on Tree-Ring Data in the Eastern Tibetan Plateau during the Past Millennium

Volcanic eruptions can significantly cool the global troposphere on the time scales from several months up to a decade due to reflection of solar radiation by sulfate aerosols and feedback mechanisms in the climate system. The impact of volcanic eruptions on global climate are discussed in many studies. However, few studies have been done on the impact of volcanic eruption on climate change in China in the past millennium. The 1300-year and 600-year temperature series were reconstructed based on the six tree-ring temperature proxy data in northeastern and southeastern Tibetan Plateau, respectively. Three warm periods occurred in 670-920,1000-1310 and 1590-1930, and three cold periods happened at 920-1000,1310-1590 and 1930-2000 in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. There were two obviously warm periods (1385-1450 and 1570-1820) and two cold periods (1450-1570 and 1820-2000) in southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Contrasting with volcanic eruption chronology, we analyzed the relationship between volcanic activity and temperature variation in the eastern Tibetan plateau during the past millennium using Superposed Epoch Analysis (SEA) method. The results indicated that the temperature decreased one year after large volcanic eruptions located beteen 10°S and 10°N in latitude in northeastern Tibetan Plateau and two years in southeastern Tibetan Plateau. The volcanic eruptions occurred at different latitudes have different impacts on the temperature variations, which may be caused by regional difference, the nature of the eruption, the magnitude of the resulting change in incoming solar radiation, prevailing background climate and internal variability, season, latitude, and other considerations.     

Humification degree of peat and its implications for Holocene climate change in Hani peatland, Northeast China

The humification degree of peat is a significant climatic proxy for paleoclimate change.Using the alkali-extraction method,a time series of absorbance values of the Hani peatland,Northeast China,was determined,which is used as an indicator for the humification degree of peat.Combined with14C dating data of peat cellulose,and compared withδ18O andδ13C time series of the cellulose in the Hani peatland,the evidence for the existence of14 ka paleoclimate was provided.Higher humification degrees hint a warmer-wetter climate,and vice versa.It also reconstructs the four stages of Holocene climate evolution in this region:11.5–9.8 cal ka B.P.,warm and wet period;9.8–9.0 cal ka B.P.,cold and dry period;9.0–4.8 cal ka B.P.,warm and wet period;and 4.8–0 cal ka B.P.,warm-wet and dry-cold alternation period.Meanwhile,it is revealed that the abrupt climate shifts signals such as the "8.2 ka" event and the "4.2 ka" event.Results showed that the Hani peat humification degree is of sensitive response to paleoclimate change.Therefore,it is a feasible method to analyze the relationship between paleoclimate change and peat humification degree.     

Mid‐Holocene frozen ground in China from PMIP3 simulations

Extensive degradation of frozen ground in the mid‐Holocene is widely assumed on the basis of sparse proxy data. Here, the simulated soil temperature from the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project Phase 3 is used to address this issue over China. By comparing with the results of a preindustrial (0 ka, baseline) simulation, we show that frozen ground in the mid‐Holocene (6 ka) simulation is degraded mainly in northeast China and on the northern Tibetan Plateau. The change follows closely orbitally induced variations in insolation. Quantitatively, permafrost area reduces by 0.02×10⁶ km² in northeast China in response to an orbitally induced increase in boreal summer insolation but increases by 0.08×10⁶ km² on the southern Tibetan Plateau due to local summer cooling. Changing values of active layer thickness vary greatly amongst different locations. On average, they are 3 and 4 cm thicker than the preindustrial values in northeast China and on the Tibetan Plateau, respectively. No degradation in seasonally frozen ground is detected over China as a whole. Regionally, its coverage increases by 0.21×10⁶ km² near the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River valley. In addition, the maximum depth of seasonal frost penetration is on average 8.5 cm deeper than preindustrial values due to widespread winter cooling. The changes in frozen ground are consistent amongst models. However, the models disagree with proxy data in terms of not only the changes in frozen ground but also climate. Further modelling improvements and adequate proxy data are both needed to fill in the gaps between models and the data in our knowledge of the mid‐Holocene frozen ground.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">n</Emphasis>-alkanol paleoclimate records in two peat deposits: a comparative study of the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and Northeast China

A number of studies have revealed that the climate in the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and Northeast China is sensitive to postglacial changes. Unfortunately, the link of the past climate evolution between the two regions is not well understood. In this study, two cores are analyzed to determine this link directly. The high-resolution n-alkanol distribution patterns from two typical peat sequences covering the past 16,000 cal years in the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and Northeast China, respectively, are closely examined by gas chromatograph–mass spectrometry analysis. In combination with other palaeoclimatic proxies, it is proposed that the n-alkanol average chain length and (C₂₂ + C₂₄)/(C₂₆ + C₂₈) ratio could reflect past climate changes in the two peat sequences. The n-alkanol proxies reveal several climatic intervals in the period from the last deglaciation through the Holocene. A comparison of n-alkanol records between the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau and Northeast China indicates that the start and end of the warm Holocene Optimum differed at the two locations. The spatially asynchronous pattern of climatic change is possibly a result of different responses to change in solar radiation. The evolution of the Holocene paleoclimate is more consistent with changes in Northern Hemisphere solar radiation in Northeast China than on the Tibetan Plateau. The Holocene Optimum began and terminated earlier in Northeast China than in the northeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Thus, the two n-alkanol proxies provide valuable insights into the regional Holocene climate and local environmental conditions.     

Latest Neogene Paleoclimate Variation in Yunnan,Southwest China,Revealed by Fossil Leaf Physiognomy

Yunnan Province, located in the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, can provide important information on how climate change was influenced by global cooling. However, its variation patterns in temperature and precipitation during the latest Neogene are not well-understood. Based on the 357 specimens assigned to 31 morphotypes of plant fossils from the upper Pliocene Ciying Formation in Yiliang County, Yunnan Province, Southwest China, paleoclimate was estimated by Leaf Margin Analysis an...     

Is There Evidence for Solar Forcing of Climate in the GISP2 Oxygen Isotope Record?

Changes in solar constant over an 11 yr cycle suggest a certain, but limited, degree of solar forcing of climate. The high-resolution climate (oxygen isotope) record of the Greenland GISP2 (Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2) ice core has been analyzed for solar (and volcanic) influences. The atmospheric¹⁴C record is used as a proxy of solar change and compared to the oxygen isotope profile in the GISP2 ice core. An annual oxygen isotope profile is derived from centimeter-scale isotope measurements available for the post-A.D. 818 interval. Associated extreme summer and winter isotope ratios were found to yield similar climate information over the last millennium. The detailed record of volcanic aerosols, converted to optical depth and volcanic explosivity change, was also compared to the isotope record and the oxygen isotope response calibrated to short-term volcanic influences on climate. This calibration shows that century-scale volcanic modulation of the GISP2 oxygen isotope record can be neglected in our analysis of solar forcing. The timing, estimated order of temperature change, and phase lag of several maxima in¹⁴C and minima in¹⁸O are suggestive of a solar component to the forcing of Greenland climate over the current millennium. The fractional climate response of the cold interval associated with the Maunder sunspot minimum (and¹⁴C maximum), as well as the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age temperature trend of the past millennium, are compatible with solar climate forcing, with an order of magnitude of solar constant change of 0.3%. Even though solar forcing of climate for the current millennium is a reasonable hypothesis, for the rest of the Holocene the century-scale events are more frequent in the oxygen isotope record than in the¹⁴C record and a significant correlation is absent. For this interval, oceanic/atmospheric circulation forcing of climate may dominate. Solar forcing during the surprisingly strong 1470 yr climate cycle of the 11,000–75,000 yr B.P. interval is rather hypothetical.     

近40a来江河源区生态环境变化的气候特征分析

利用月气象资料,对过去40a江河源气候变化特征进行分析,并与全球、全国、青藏高原进行了比较.结果表明:江河源区气温具有增暖趋势,近40a两地年平均气温分别增加约0.8℃和0.7℃,为高原异常变暖区.黄河源区变暖的主要特征是最低气温变暖,日照时数增加;最低、最高气温的显著变暖,以及较黄河源区增加更长的日照时数是长江源区变暖的主要特征.长江源区冬季变暖的作用不是主要的,春季、夏季和秋季的变暖作用比冬季还要大;黄河源区的变暖也并不主要是冬季变暖造成的,秋季变暖的作用与其相当,其它季节的变暖作用也不能忽视.近40a来江河源区降水量略有增加,主要体现在20世纪80年代中后期以来春季与冬季降水量的明显增加,夏季降水量虽然总体上没有明显变化,且局地夏季降水量呈持续减少趋势.与全球、全国以及高原区对比显示,江河源区对全球气候变暖的响应最敏感,变暖首先从长江源和整个高原发端,之后15a.黄河源和全国才进入显著温暖期.黄河源与长江源北部降水量的增加表明,气候变暖有利于高原增加降水量.     

Holocene vegetation and climate histories in the eastern Tibetan Plateau: controls by insolation-driven temperature or monsoon-derived precipitation changes?

The climates on the eastern Tibetan Plateau are strongly influenced by direct insolation heating as well as monsoon-derived precipitation change. However, the moisture and temperature influences on regional vegetation and climate have not been well documented in paleoclimate studies. Here we present a well-dated and high-resolution loss-on-ignition, peat property and fossil pollen record over the last 10,000 years from a sedge-dominated fen peatland in the central Zoige Basin on the eastern Tibetan Plateau and discuss its ecological and climatic interpretations. Lithology results indicate that organic matter content is high at 60–80% between 10 and 3 ka (1 ka = 1000 cal yr BP) and shows large-magnitude fluctuations in the last 3000 years. Ash-free bulk density, as a proxy of peat decomposition and peatland surface moisture conditions, oscillates around a mean value of 0.1 g/cm³, with low values at 6.5–4.7 ka, reflecting a wet interval, and an increasing trend from 4.7 to 2 ka, suggesting a drying trend. The time-averaged mean carbon accumulation rates are 30.6 gC/m²/yr for the last 10,000 years, higher than that from many northern peatlands. Tree pollen (mainly from Picea), mostly reflecting temperature change in this alpine meadow-forest ecotonal region, has variable values (from 3 to 34%) during the early Holocene, reaches the peak value during the mid-Holocene at 6.5 ka, and then decreases until 2 ka. The combined peat property and pollen data indicate that a warm and wet climate prevailed in the mid-Holocene (6.5–4.7 ka), representing a monsoon maximum or “optimum climate” for the region. The timing is consistent with recent paleo-monsoon records from southern China and with the idea that the interplays of summer insolation and other extratropical large-scale boundary conditions, including sea-surface temperature and sea-level change, control regional climate. The cooling and drying trend since the mid-Holocene likely reflects the decrease in insolation heating and weakening of summer monsoons. Regional synthesis of five pollen records along a south–north transect indicates that this climate pattern can be recognized all across the eastern Tibetan Plateau. The peatland and vegetation changes in the late Holocene suggest complex and dramatic responses of these lowland and upland ecosystems to changes in temperature and moisture conditions and human activities.     

Correlation between the oxygen isotope record from Dasuopu ice core and the Asian Southwest Monsoon during the last millennium

Long high-resolution proxy records are valuable for understanding Asian Southwest Monsoon (ASM) dynamics on decadal to centennial timescales. A millennium long δ¹⁸O ice core record from the central Himalayas provides an opportunity to study the ASM variability on decadal to centennial timescales. The Dasuopu ice core δ¹⁸O record indicates that a relatively warm period corresponding with the Medieval Warm Period lasted from AD 1140s to 1390s, a notable warming trend is apparent from 1800s to 1990s, and several cool periods occurred between AD 1010–1130s, 1290–1330s, 1400–1460s, 1520s, 1590–1630s, 1740s, and 1770–1790s. Comparisons with other high-resolution monsoon proxy records from the Arabian Sea, south Oman, and southern China reveal a high correspondence between temperature changes in the central Himalayas and the ASM variability during the last 1000 years. A pronounced warming trend since AD 1670 coincides with an abrupt transition from a weak to a strong intensity of the ASM. The thermal conditions in the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau and associated glacial boundary conditions may have been predominantly responsible for variations of the ASM intensity and for a latitudinal movement in the mean position of the ITCZ on decadal to centennial timescales.