A further study on an extended nonlinear ocean—atmosphere coupled hydrodynamic characteristic system and the abrupt feature of ENSO events

In this paper, the decade data of meteorological satellite and surface meteorological observation of China have been analysed. The relationship between cloud and radiation has been studied. A set of empirical formulae of the ralationships between the albedo and cloud amount, the outgoing longwave radiation and cloud amount in Chinese different districts and different seasons has been deduced. They express simply the response of both planet reflectivity and earth-atmosphere outgoing longwave radiation to the change of cloud amount. So that the sensitivity of net radiation of the earth-atmosphere system to the change of cloud amount and the ratio of cloud reflective effect to greenhouse effect can be estimated. In this paper, the radiative process of the earth-atmosphere system, cloud and radiative balance and its effect on climate have been synthetically studied. ¹The project is supported by National Natural Sciences Fundation of China (NNSFC).     

中国地区云对地气系统长波射出辐射（OLR）强迫的气候研究

本文利用地球辐射平衡试验（ERBE）和国际卫星去气候计划（ISCCP）提供的地气系统长波射出辐射（OLR）和云量资料，计算半讲座了我国各季和年平均去量对地气系统OLR的强迫及其所产生的温室效应，结果表明：我国各季的OLR云强迫与总云量，高云量都有较好的相关，且季节变化明显；OLR云强迫和云温室效应的地理分布受云量和云状的影响较大，它们的年变化一般呈弱双峰型，峰值在春，夏季出现。     

中国地区云对地气系统长波射出辐射(OLR)强迫的气候研

本文利用地球辐射平衡试验(ERBE)和国际卫星云气候计划(ISCCP)提供的地气系统长波射出辐射(OLR)和云量资料，计算并讨论了我国各季和年平均云量对地气系统OLR的强迫及其所产生的温室效应。结果表明我国各季的OLR云强迫与总云量、高云量都有较好的相关，且季节变化明显；OLR云强迫和云温室效应的地理分布受云量和云状的影响较大，它们的年变化一般呈弱双峰型，峰值在春、夏季出现。     

大气沙尘辐射特性的卫星观测

对１９９１年３－５月在ＨＥＩＦＥ实验区过境的１０次ＡＶＨＲＲ测量资料和同期大气浑浊度观测资料的分析结果表明,ＡＶＨＲＲ资料可用于大气沙尘对地系统辐射能收支影响的研究。     

Greenhouse effect and altitude gradients over the Alps – by surface longwave radiation measurements and model calculated LOR

Summary The greenhouse effect has been investigated predominantly with satellite measurements, but more than 90% of the greenhouse radiative flux affecting Earths surface temperature and humidity originates from a 1000 meter layer above the surface. Here we show that substantial improvements on surface longwave radiation measurements and very good agreement with radiative transfer model calculations allow the clear-sky greenhouse effect be determined with measured surface longwave radiation and calculated longwave outgoing radiation at the top of the atmosphere. The cloud radiative forcing is determined by measured net longwave fluxes and added to the clear-sky greenhouse effect to determine the all-sky greenhouse effect. Longwave radiation measurements at different altitudes were used to determine the clear-sky and all-sky annual and seasonal greenhouse effect and altitude gradients over the Alps. Linear altitude gradients are measured for clear-sky situations, whereas the all-sky greenhouse effect is strongly influenced by varying, cloud amounts at different altitudes. Large diurnal and seasonal variations show the importance of surface heating and cooling effects and demonstrate the strong coupling of the greenhouse effect to surface temperature and humidity.     

卫星观测的中国区域气候

本文利用美国NOAA卫星系列观测的辐射收支资料(1974年6月—1985年2月)对中国不同气候区有代表性的漠河等10站附近的累年平均净辐射及射出长波辐射的年变化进行分析,发现在不同的气候区域,这二个参数的年变化有明显不同的特征。这说明除了地面观测的气象要素以外,卫星观测的地气系统的射出长波辐射及净辐射可以作为分析区域气候的参数之一。     

水云的长波光学性质参数化

在研究水云的微物理性质与光学性质关系的基础上，提出了三种用于长波区域窄带和宽带水云光学性质计算的参数化方案，研究了应用不同的水云光学性质参数化方案和不同的宽带数目对云辐射性质的影响。分析了云滴的散射作用对有云大气中长波辐射通量和冷却率的影响。     

青藏高原云对地气系统长波射出辐射(OLR)强迫的气候研究

利用地球辐射平衡试验（ＥＲＢＥ）和国际卫星云气修计划（ＩＳＣＣＰ）提供的地气系统长波射出辐射（ＯＬＲ）和云量资料,计算并讨论了青藏高原地气系统各季和年平均总云量对ＯＬＲ的强迫及其所产生的温室效应,揭示了高、低示了高、低云对ＯＬＲ强迫的特点。结果表明：高原的ＯＬＲ云强迫与总云量、高云量都有较好的相关关系,且季节变化明显;ＯＬＲ云强迫和云温室效应的地理分布与高原总云量的分布较为一致;云强迫的年变化一同     

CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH-ATMOSPHERE OUTGOING LONGWAVE RADIATION OVER CHINA*

ERBE and ISCCP data are used to investigate the cloud forcing and latitude and atmospheric temperature effects on outgoing longwave radiation(OLR) in the earth-atmosphere system,and the similarity of OLR field to 500 hPa and surface effective radiation fields.Also,discussion is taken up of the OLR distribution on a nationwide basis,indicating that the winter(summer) OLR pattern is roughly a zonal type(asymmetrical saddle) with the annual pattern analogous to the January one.In the end the yearly OLR variation features are addressed on a regional basis.     

CLIMATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH-ATMOSPHERE OUTGOING LONGWAVE RADIATION OVER CHINA

ERBE and ISCCP data are used to investigate the cloud forcing and latitude and atmospheric temperature effectson outgoing longwave radiation(OLR)in the earth-atmosphere system,and the similarity of OLR field to 500 hPa andsurface effective radiation fields.Also,discussion is taken up of the OLR distribution on a nationwide basis,indicatingthat the winter(summer)OLR pattern is roughly a zonal type(asymmetrical saddle)with the annual pattern analogousto the January one.In the end the yearly OLR variation features are addressed on a regional basis.     

层状云微物理参数反演及其辐射效应的个例研究

利用毫米波云雷达、微波辐射计联合反演方法,对2015年11月11日安徽寿县的一次层状云过程的云参数进行了反演,将所得云参数加入到SBDART辐射传输模式中,进行辐射通量计算,并将计算的地面辐射通量与观测的地面辐射通量进行了对比分析。研究表明:1)利用毫米波雷达和微波辐射计数据联合反演的云参数比较可靠;2)利用SBDART模式并结合反演的云参数,可以准确实时地计算地面及其他高度层的长短波辐射通量;3)在反演的云参数中,光学厚度对地面各种辐射通量的影响是最大的,云层的光学厚度越大,到达地面的太阳短波辐射越小,地面反射短波辐射也越小。另外云底温度越高,云体向下发射的红外长波辐射越大。地面向上的长波辐射是地面温度的普朗克函数,随地面温度而变;4)云对地面的短波辐射强迫为负值,对地面有降温的作用。云对地面的长波辐射强迫是一个正值,对地面有一个增温的作用;5)云对地面的净辐射强迫随时间变化很大,它的正负与太阳高度角和云参数有关。     

我国西北大气沙尘气溶胶的辐射效应

利用HEIFE地面辐射平衡观测资料和同期NOAA-11/AVHRR卫星遥感资料定量估算春季我国西北大气沙尘的辐射效应。大气沙尘减小地面净辐射冷却地面,对地-气系统和大气的辐射效应均与地表反照率有关,严重浑浊的沙尘大气在沙漠为短波加热和长波冷却,在绿洲则相反,但净效应都是加热。文中给出了4月大气浑浊度系数约由0.1增大到0.6,在沙漠和绿洲上空沙尘层（850～600 hPa）内大气的附加短波、长波和净加热/冷却率。     

中国地区云对地-气系统辐射强迫温度效应的气候研究

文中利用地球辐射平衡试验 (ERBE)和国际卫星云气候计划 (ISCCP)提供的地 气系统行星反射率、射出长波辐射 (OLR)和云量资料 ,计算了中国地区年、月平均总云量对地 气系统短波辐射、长波辐射以及净辐射强迫的温度效应和敏感性系数 ,并讨论了云对各辐射分量强迫的温度效应与总云量的关系。结果表明 :地 气系统云辐射强迫温度效应与总云量间具有较明显的曲线相关。云辐射强迫温度效应及其敏感性系数具有明显的时空变化特点。就中国全国平均而言 ,各月地 气系统云辐射强迫净温度效应一般表现为降温作用。     

不同形状冰晶权重假定对冰云光学和辐射特性的影响

在BCC_RAD辐射传输模式和包含多形状冰晶粒子的冰云光学性质参数化方案的基础上,详细分析了不同冰晶粒子权重选取对冰云光学和辐射特性的影响。结果显示,不同形状冰晶粒子权重的选取对长波带平均消光系数、单次散射比、不对称因子和短波带平均不对称因子均有较大的影响。冰晶粒子权重选取对长波辐射通量有很大影响:对长波向下辐射通量,权重选择不同可在云底处造成高达10.50 W/m2的差别;对长波向上辐射通量,权重选择不同可在云顶处造成高达15.05 W/m2的差别。冰晶粒子权重选择对短波辐射通量也存在较大影响:对短波向下辐射通量,权重选择不同可在云底处造成高达12.48 W/m2的差别;对短波向上辐射通量,权重选择不同可在云顶处造成高达10.23 W/m2的差别。冰晶粒子权重选择对长波加热率影响较大,在云顶处和云底处分别可达1.31和-2.06 K/d。研究表明,不同形状冰晶粒子权重的选取对冰云光学性质和辐射计算均有较大的影响,在长波区间尤其明显。      

青藏高原地区地-气系统的辐射平衡特征

本文利用1982年8月—1983年7月青藏高原热源野外考察期间的Nimbus7卫星观测资料,分析了高原及其邻近地区行星反照率、大气顶的射出长波辐射和地-气系统辐射平衡的区域分布及季节变化特征以及它们对天气气候的影响。同时配合同期的地面辐射观测资料,讨论了卫星资料与地面实测资料间的相互关系,为探索卫星资料的应用等作了尝试。     

气候模式中云的垂直重叠假定对模拟的地-气辐射的影响研究

本文将一种新的可以模拟云的多种垂直重叠假定的随机次网格云产生器 (SCG) 放入NCAR/CAM3气候模式中, 利用该产生器得到云的四种垂直重叠结构, 即最大重叠 (MO)、 随机重叠 (RO)、 最大-随机重叠 (MRO) 以及近年来发展的一般重叠 (GenO), 并以GenO为参照研究了这四种云的重叠结构对模拟的地-气辐射的影响, 为气候模式中云的次网格结构选择提供一定的依据。结果表明, MRO、 MO和RO总云量分别与GenO总云量 (全球平均0.64左右) 偏差约-0.012、 -0.034和0.026, 其中MRO最接近GenO。不同重叠假定对地面接收到的短波辐射通量 (DSR) 的改变显著, 在热带对流区达到16 W/m2以上, 相当于GenO下该地区相应量的8%～12%, 通过了95%信度检验; 在中高纬度低云量大的地区也达到4～8 W/m2。不同重叠假定对大气顶出射长波辐射 (OLR) 的改变比其对短波辐射通量的改变小得多, 在热带对流区有极大值3～4 W/m2。不同的云重叠结构的大气加热率垂直廓线不同, 从而影响大气热力结构, 其中长波加热率差值 (最大约0.1～0.26 K/d) 比短波加热率差值 (最大约0.01～0.025 K/d) 几乎大一个量级, 因此, 长波加热率的变化是影响大气热力层结的主要因素。云重叠假定影响地面和大气顶云辐射强迫, 并通过柱辐射强迫使得整层气柱的能量收支发生变化, 不同纬度变化趋势也不同, 从而系统性地改变地-气系统能量在各纬度地区的分配, 影响所模拟的气候系统的演变。     

冰晶粒子不同形状假定对辐射收支和气候的影响

将包含多形状冰晶粒子的冰云辐射参数化方案应用于全球气候模式中,详细讨论了冰云粒子从球形假定到多形状假定的变化对辐射场和气候场的影响。结果显示,冰晶粒子形状假定的引入对冰云光学厚度、辐射通量和加热率以及温度场均有明显的影响。采用新的冰云方案使得全球平均云光学厚度值降低0.28（23%）;热带地区降低最为明显,其差异绝对值可达1.02,而在中高纬度陆地地区,两者的冰云光学厚度差别较小。冰晶粒子形状假定改变将导致全球平均的大气顶出射长波辐射通量增加5.52 W/m2（2.3%）。与观测资料的比较表明,多形状冰晶粒子假定明显减小了球形粒子假定对长波出射辐射的低估。对大气加热率廓线的模拟显示,多形状冰晶粒子假定会减弱短波辐射对大气的加热作用,同时增强长波辐射对大气的冷却作用;在热带对流层中高层,这两种影响尤为显著。冰晶粒子形状假定的改变对温度场有明显的影响,热带地区的对流层高层大气温度降低幅度可超过1.5 K。研究表明,冰晶粒子形状假定的改变对模拟的辐射和温度场均有重要的影响。      

Radiative and Evaporative Cooling in the Entrainment Zone of Stratocumulus – the Role of Longwave Radiative Cooling Above Cloud Top

A mixing fraction determines the relative amount of above-cloud-top air that has been mixed into a cloudy air parcel. A method, based on the use of mixing fractions, to calculate the cooling effects due to mixing, longwave radiation and phase changes at cloud top is derived and discussed. We compute cooling effects for the whole range of mixing fraction for two observed cases of the stratocumulus-topped marine boundary layer. In both cases the total radiative cooling effect is found to be the most dominant contributor to the negative buoyancy excess found at cloud top. The largest radiative cooling rates are found for clear-air parcels immediately adjacent to cloud top rather than inside the cloud. With the help of a simple longwave radiation model, we show this to be caused by clear-air radiative cooling due to the temperature inversion at cloud top. Further we show that flux profiles in the entrainment zone can be computed from data obtained from a horizontal level run that is half the time in cloud and half the time out of cloud.     

Turbulence Effects on Precipitation and Cloud Radiative Properties in Shallow Cumulus: an Investigation Using the WRF-LES Model Coupled with Bin Microphysics

Using the large-eddy simulation version of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model coupled with a detailed bin microphysics scheme, the effects of turbulence-induced collision enhancement (TICE) on precipitation and cloud radiative properties in shallow cumulus are investigated. Similar to previous studies, the enhanced droplet collision results in an increase in rainwater content and surface precipitation amount. However, under low aerosol number concentration, the relative frequency of large surface precipitation amount is decreased mainly due to the decreased condensation amount. Due to TICE, the mean drop size increases and the drop number concentration decreases, which results in a decrease in evaporation and hence increasing cloud fraction. However, these changes induce a decrease in cloud optical thickness which largely offsets the increased cloud fraction when the domain-averaged albedo is calculated. Similarly, a decrease in cloud top height caused by the decreased in-cloud vertical velocity largely offsets the increased cloud fraction when the domain-averaged outgoing longwave radiation is calculated. Therefore, the effects of TICE on cloud radiative properties in shallow cumulus do not appear prominently. In addition, TICE results in a decrease in the shear production of turbulent kinetic energy, which indicates that TICE acts to produce a negative feedback.     

A hybrid technique for computing the monthly mean net longwave surface radiation over oceanic areas

Summary Global maps of the monthly mean net upward longwave radiation flux at the ocean surface have been obtained for April, July, October 1985 and January 1986. These maps were produced by blending information obtained from a combination of general circulation model cloud radiative forcing fields, the top-of-the-atmosphere cloud radiative forcing from ERBE and TOVS profiles and sea surface temperature on ISCCP C1 tapes. The fields are compatible with known meteorological regimes of atmospheric water vapor content and cloudiness. There is a vast area of high net upward longwave radiation flux (> 80 W m^–2) in the eastern Pacific Ocean throughout most of the year. Areas of low net upward longwave radiation flux (< 40 Wm^–2) are the tropical convective regions and extra tropical regions that tend to have persistent low cloud cover. The technique used in this study relies on GCM simulations and so is subject to some of the uncertainties associated with the model. However, all input information regarding temperature, moisture and cloud cover is from satellite data having near global coverage. This feature of the procedure alone warrants its consideration for further use in compiling global maps of the net longwave radiation at the surface over the oceans.With 9 Figures