The role of boundary conditions in numerical models of subduction zone dynamics

Numerical studies of subduction zone dynamics on a regional scale usually use a limited spatial extent for their models and therefore need to define boundary conditions on all model edges. These boundary conditions imply a choice for the mechanical and thermal state of the surrounding regions which may influence the evolution of the model system. We investigate the role of the surface and lateral boundary conditions for simple mechanical subduction models using a standard finite element method. We find that subduction is only possible if the slab can decouple from the surface. This decoupling can be achieved by a true free surface, a free-slip surface with a weak crust for the subducting plate, or a free-slip surface with a layer of low viscosity, low density material (‘sticky air’) between the model surface and the crust. Models of slab dynamics that employ a free-slip surface reproduce trench migration, slab sinking velocities and slab geometry of models with a free surface, as long as they use either a weak crust, which can be viscous, viscoelastic and/or brittle, or a ‘sticky air’ layer. The vertical topography will however not be reproduced for free-slip models without a ‘sticky air’ layer. For ocean–ocean convergent models we find that the application of inflow boundary conditions at the edges of the subducting or overriding lithosphere controls trench motion and the geometry of the subducting slab. Inflow on the overriding side causes trench retreat and a slab resting on the lower mantle, whereas inflow restricted to the subducting side can cause trench advance and a slab which folds on the lower mantle.     

斜坡下考虑支护效应浅埋隧道力学响应的时效解答

针对岩质或黄土浅埋隧道,考虑岩土体黏弹性流变特性和支护效应,给出斜坡下进行隧道施工时的全域时效解答。根据一般黏弹性问题求解方法,采用复变函数方法、Laplace变换、黏弹性叠加关系,用随时间和空间变化支护力体现管片支护效应,导出适用于任意黏弹性模型岩体、任意时刻施加支护的应力与位移。解答与相同模型有限元结果一致,根据解答分析了广义Kelvin黏弹性模型岩体中浅埋隧道开挖时侧压力系数、斜坡倾角、埋深对稳定地表沉陷大小和范围、洞周时效位移、应力的影响,给出可按深埋问题处理时的埋深范围。解答可用于岩质和黄土隧道初步设计中,并为隧道与地下结构相互作用分析两阶段法提供自由位移场。     

不同边界和地基条件的大型滑坡体动力响应分析

动力有限元计算结果的真实性与模型边界条件的设置和地震波输入高程的选择有着密切的关系。采用动力有限元时程分析法对不同边界和地基条件的大型滑坡体进行了数值计算,在此基础上分析了地基辐射阻尼和地震加速度输入高程对滑坡体动力响应的影响,以及大型滑坡体的地震响应规律。结果表明,上田镇大型滑坡体在动力作用下上部的位移响应值大,剪应力小,而下部则相反;黏弹性边界能有效地降低滑坡体的地震反应,而且地震输入高程的不同对滑坡体的地震响应会产生相当大的影响,地基辐射阻尼和地震波输入的模拟合理性直接影响滑坡体动力分析的客观性。     

Sediment dynamics in the lowermost Mississippi River

There is much to be gained from investigating sediment dynamics in the lower Mississippi system, the largest river in terms of discharge and sediment load in North America. Such work can improve conceptual knowledge concerning downstream changes at the lower end of large river systems and can be applied to manage sediment diversions for wetland restoration in south Louisiana. Suspended sediment dynamics in the lowermost Mississippi River system in Louisiana are characterized using three approaches: (1) temporal changes in discharge-suspended sediment relationships showing interannual variations and the effects of floods over short timescales; (2) empirical relationships between discharge and suspended sediment variables at various locations; and (3) downstream changes in discharge-suspended sediment relationships. Interpretation of this data set is enhanced with other secondary data regarding processes, morphology, and bed materials.

Upstream, near Old River, LA, empirical relationships show nonlinearity, particularly in fine sediments, with decreased concentrations at highest discharges. During high discharge years, suspended sediment concentration peaks precede discharge crests by 40–85 days. The lead generally decreases with decreasing discharge maxima so that in low discharge years sediment peaks and discharge crests closely coincide in time. Downstream, near Belle Chasse, LA, fine bottom materials are resuspended and the timing of sediment peaks and discharge crests is coincident, regardless of flow magnitude. Conceptually, results suggest caution when generalizing about the relative timing of the sediment wave and flood wave and their downstream progression. These phenomena are influenced by local bed material and hydraulic conditions, and depend on the causative factors of sediment peaks. From an applied perspective, diversions should be managed differently depending upon where they are constructed along the river and upon the magnitude of the annual maximum flow. During high discharge years, when concerns for navigation and water supply are minimal, flow should be diverted on the rising limb upstream, near Old River, and during the discharge crest downstream near New Orleans.     

The role of carbonate-fluoride melt immiscibility in shallow REE deposit evolution

The Lugiin Gol nepheline syenite intrusion, Mongolia, hosts a range of carbonatite dikes mineralized in rare-earth elements(REE). Both carbonatites and nepheline syenite-fluorite-calcite veinlets are host to a previously unreported macroscale texture involving pseudo-graphic intergrowths of fluorite and calcite. The inclusions within calcite occur as either pure fluorite, with associated REE minerals within the surrounding calcite, or as mixed calcite-fluorite inclusions, with associated zirconosilicate minerals. Consideration of the nature of the texture, and the proportions of fluorite and calcite present(～29 and 71 mol%,respectively), indicates that these textures most likely formed either through the immiscible separation of carbonate and fluoride melts, or from cotectic crystallization of a carbonatefluoride melt. Laser ablation ICP-MS analyses show the pure fluorite inclusions to be depleted in REE relative to the calcite. A model is proposed, in which a carbonate-fluoride melt phase enriched in Zr and the REE, separated from a phonolitic melt, and then either unmixed or underwent cotectic crystallization to generate an REE-rich carbonate melt and an REE-poor fluoride phase. The separation of the fluoride phase(either solid or melt) may have contributed to the enrichment of the carbonate melt in REE, and ultimately its saturation with REE minerals. Previous data have suggested that carbonate melts separated from silicate melts are relatively depleted in the REE, and thus melt immiscibility cannot result in the formation of REE-enriched carbonatites. The observations presented here provide a mechanism by which this could occur, as under either model the textures imply initial separation of a mixed carbonate-fluoride melt from a silicate magma. The separation of an REEenriched carbonate-fluoride melt from phonolitic magma is a hitherto unrecognized mechanism for REE-enrichment in carbonatites, and may play an important role in the formation of shallow magmatic REE deposits.     

On the boundary conditions in slope stability analysis

Boundary conditions can affect computed factor of safety results in two‐ and three‐dimensional stability analyses of slopes. Commonly used boundary conditions in two‐ and three‐dimensional slope stability analyses via limit‐equilibrium and continuum‐mechanics based solution procedures are described. A sample problem is included to illustrate the importance of boundary conditions in slope stability analyses. The sample problem is solved using two‐ and three‐dimensional numerical models commonly used in engineering practice. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

On the problem of boundary conditions in isentropic coordinates

The main advantages of constant potential enthalpy as a vertical coordinate are weaker horizontal velocity gradients in frontal regions and a higher vertical resolution. A disadvantage is the intersection of isentropes with the ground and folding of these surfaces. A numerical model is proposed to overcome the difficulties imposed by the intersection of isentropes with the ground. The model contains a physical and computational domain. The top and bottom surfaces of the computational domain are isentropes whereas the physical domain of the flow confined above by a free surface of constant pressure, and the bottom of this domain is the surface of the earth. In the present study the top surfaces of these two domains coincide (θ _T, P_Tare constants in space and time). The model was tested for the study of frontogenesis and cyclogenesis and integrated for 7 days. The results correspond to enstrophy-conserving finite difference scheme.     

碎石土斜坡水平受荷桩承载特性研究

斜坡上的桩基础的承载性能是复杂多变的。对于四川西部山地地形较广泛,且地基覆盖层多为特有的碎石土地层来说,水平受荷桩的相关研究还较少。为了研究碎石土地基斜坡上单桩基础的水平承载特性及桩土间的相互作用,通过现场水平静载荷试验在坡度为0°、15°、30°、45°的条件下,探讨桩身变形、桩身弯矩、土压力的变化。运用FLAC3D有限元分析软件得出水平荷载作用下,碎石土斜坡不同坡度的桩基础与桩周土之间的应力云图、位移云图的变化特点。将数值模拟结果与现场试验结果进行了对比,提出了单桩水平临界荷载和极限荷载在不同坡度区间内取值时的折减系数,为实际工程提供一定的参考。     

The role of boundary layer momentum advection in the mean location of the ITCZ

The inter-tropical convergence zones (ITCZ) form closer to the equator during equinoxes while they form well away from the equator during the boreal summer. A simple three-way balance between the pressure gradients, Coriolis force and effective Rayleigh friction has been classically used to diagnose the location of maximum boundary layer convergence in the near equatorial ITCZ. If such a balance can capture the dynamics of off-equatorial convergence was not known. We used idealized aqua planet simulations with fixed, zonally symmetric sea surface temperature boundary conditions to simulate the near equatorial and off-equatorial ITCZ. As opposed to the convergence of inter-hemispheric flows in the near equatorial convergence, the off-equatorial convergence forms due to the deceleration of cross-equatorial meridional flow. The detailed momentum budget of the off-equatorial convergence zone reveals that the simple balance is not sufficient to capture the relevant dynamics. The deceleration of the meridional flow is strongly modulated by the inertial effects due to the meridional advection of zonal momentum in addition to the terms in the simple balance. The simple balance predicts a spurious near equatorial convergence and a consistent off-equatorial convergence of the meridional flow. The spurious convergence disappears when inertial effects are included in the balance. As cross equatorial meridional flow decelerates to form convergence, the inertial effects cancel the pressure gradient effects near the equator while they add away from the equator. The contribution to the off-equatorial convergence induced by the pressure gradients is significantly larger than the contribution due to the inertial effects and hence pressure gradients appear to be the primary factor in anchoring the strength and location of the off-equatorial convergence.     

电成像与浅层地震联合在浅覆盖区隐伏断层探测中的应用

为了避免单一物探方法在地质反演解释中存在的多解性弊端,本文介绍了以电成像法为主、浅层地震反射波法为辅的综合物探方法对隐伏断层进行探测的应用实例,首先,通过电成像法查找断层破碎带的位置走向,然后利用浅层地震反射波法精确查明断层的产状、性质、位置及断距等地质参数,并对两种方法的探测成果进行综合对比分析,推断该隐伏断层为走向近东西向,倾向近南北向的正断层,断层落差约4.2m,其上断点埋深约17.9m。经钻孔验证表明,电成像与浅层地震联合方法在浅覆盖区隐伏断层探测中具有精确、可靠、经济的优势,该方法具有较强的应用价值。     

塔北哈拉哈塘地区奥陶系层间改造区岩溶古水文条件分析

哈拉哈塘地区自北往南可分为潜山岩溶区、层间岩溶顺层改造区、层间岩溶台缘叠加区、层间岩溶斜坡区。层间岩溶-顺层改造区为潜山岩溶区和层间岩溶区过渡区域,文章对前志留纪和良里塔格组岩溶期沉积间断古岩溶水文条件特征进行了详细分析,认为地表河流特征总体表现为自北往南径流,深切河谷决定着局部排泄基准面的深度。在此基础上对地下暗河特征进行刻画,本区地下暗河类型多样,总体表现为流入型和流出型暗河管道系统发育,多为单流入、流出系统,地震反射暗河特征较明显,多为连续或断续串珠强反射,以良里塔格组岩溶期暗河最为发育,且前志留纪岩溶期“断头河”多为部分伏流出口。地下暗河管道附近往往发育大型缝洞体,是目前勘探开发重点研究攻坚对象,因此精确恢复和刻画古岩溶流域水文系统的分布特征,寻找油气藏有利储层是广大岩溶油藏专家所关注的重点。      

High-temperature compression experiments of CaSiO3 perovskite to lowermost mantle conditions and its thermal equation of state

In order to examine pressure–volume–temperature (P–V–T) relations for CaSiO₃ perovskite (Ca-perovskite), high-temperature compression experiments with in situ X-ray diffraction were performed in a laser-heated diamond anvil cell (DAC) to 127 GPa and 2,300 K. We also employed an external heating system in the DAC in order to obtain P–V data at a moderate temperature of 700 K up to 113 GPa, which is the reference temperature for constructing an equation of state. The P–V data at 700 K were fitted to the second-order Birch–Murnaghan equation of state, yielding K _700,1bar = 207 ± 4 GPa and V _700,1bar = 46.5 ± 0.1 Å³. Thermal pressure terms were evaluated in the framework of the Mie–Grüneisen–Debye model, yielding γ _700,1bar = 2.7 ± 0.3, q _700,1bar = 1.2 ± 0.8, and θ _700,1bar = 1,300 ± 500 K. A thermodynamic thermal pressure model was also employed, yielding α_700,1bar = 5.7 ± 0.5 × 10^?5/K and (?K/?T) _V  = ?0.010 ± 0.004 GPa/K. Computed densities along a lower mantle geotherm demonstrate that Ca-perovskite is denser than the surrounding lower mantle, suggesting that Ca-perovskite-rich rocks do not rise up through the lower mantle. One of such rocks might be a residue of partial melting of subducted mid-oceanic ridge basalt (MORB) at the base of the mantle. Since the partial melt is FeO-rich and therefore denser than the mantle, all the components of subducted MORB may not return to shallow levels.     

Structure, mineralogy and dynamics of the lowermost mantle

The 2004-discovery of the post-perovskite transition initiated a vigorous effort in high-pressure, high-temperature mineralogy and mineral physics, seismology and geodynamics aimed at an improved understanding of the structure and dynamics of the D"-zone. The phase transitions in basaltic and peridotitic lithologies under pT-conditions of the lowermost mantle can explain a series of previously enigmatic seismic discontinuities. Some of the other seismic properties of the lowermost mantle are also consistent with the changes in physical properties related to the perovskite (pv) to post-perovskite (ppv) transition. After more than 25 years of seismic tomography, the lowermost mantle structure involving the sub-Pacific and sub-African Large Low Shear-Velocity Provinces (LLSVPs) has become a robust feature. The two large antipodal LLSVPs are surrounded by wide zones of high Vs under the regions characterized by Mesozoic to recent subduction. The D" is further characterized by a negative correlation between shear and bulk sound velocity which could be partly related to an uneven distribution of pv and ppv. Ppv has higher VS and lower $ V_{\Phi } $ (bulk sound speed) than pv and may be present in thicker layers in the colder regions of D". Seismic observations and geodynamic modelling indicate relatively steep and sharp boundaries of the 200-500 km thick LLSVPs. These features, as well as independent evidence for their long-term stability, indicate that they are intrinsically denser than the surrounding mantle. Mineral physics data demonstrate that basaltic lithologies are denser than peridotite throughout the lowermost mantle and undergo incremental densification due to the pvppv- transition at slightly shallower levels than peridotite. The density contrasts may facilitate the partial separation and accumulation of basaltic patches and slivers at the margins of the thermochemical piles (LLSVPs). The slopes of these relatively steep margins towards the adjacent horizontal core-mantle boundary (CMB) constitute a curved (concave) thermal boundary layer, favourable for the episodic generation of large mantle plumes. Reconstruction of the original positions of large igneous provinces formed during the last 300 Ma, using a paleomagnetic global reference frame, indicates that nearly all of them erupted above the margins of the LLSVPs. Fe/Mg-partitioning between pv, ppv and ferropericlase (fp) is important for the phase and density relations of the lower mantle. Electronic spin transition of Fe2+ and Fe3+ in the different phases may influence the Fe/Mg-partitioning and the radiative thermal conductivity in the lowermost mantle. The experimental determination of the $ {K_D}{^{Fe/Mg}_{pv/fp}}\left[ { = {{\left( {Fe/Mg} \right)}_{pv}}/{{\left( {Fe/Mg} \right)}_{fp}}} \right] $ and $ {K_D}{^{Fe/Mg}_{ppv/fp}} $ is technologically challenging. Most studies have found a $ {K_D}{^{Fe/Mg}_{pv/fp}} $ of 0.1-0.3 and a higher Fe/Mg-ratio in ppv than in pv. The experimental temperature is important, with the partitioning approaching unity with increasing temperature. Although charge-coupled substitutions of the trivalent cations Al and Fe³⁺ seem to be important in both pv and ppv (especially in basaltic compositions), the complicating crystal-chemistry effects of these cations are not fully clarified. The two anti-podal thermochemical piles as well as the thin ultra-low velocity zones next to the CMB may represent geochemically enriched reservoirs that have remained largely isolated from the convecting mantle through a major part of Earth history. The existence of such “hidden” reservoirs have previously been suggested in order to account for the imbalance between the inferred composition of the geochemically accessible convecting mantle and the observed heat flow from the Earth and chondritic models for the bulk Earth.     

Variations of trace elements under hydrological conditions in the Min River,Eastern Tibetan Plateau

In order to better understand the relative importance of hydrologic variation and anthropogenic disturbance and their complex interactions within the trace elemental geochemical cycle, water samples were collected monthly over 1 year in the Min River, eastern Tibetan Plateau, and analyzed for trace element composition. The dissolved trace elements exhibited different relationships with increasing discharge compared with major elements. The elements analyzed can be divided into three groups according to their behavior in response to changing discharge: (1) elements that showed weak positive correlation with discharge, e.g. Cu, V, and Ba; (2) elements that exhibited weak negative correlation with discharge, including Rb, Sr, Pb, Sb, Zn, Cr, Cd, and U; and (3) elements that displayed no significant correlation with variation in discharge, e.g. Ti, Fe, Co, Ni, and As. Cu was strongly affected by anthropogenic activities and flushed into the river with increasing discharge. Ba has a strong solubility in the terrestrial environment, dissolved quickly, and was released into the river. The positive relationship between V concentration and discharge may be attributed to secondary reactions, such as precipitation and adsorption on oxides and aluminosilicate clays. Conservative behavior had an impact on the geochemical behavior of Sr and Rb across hydrologic variation. Pb, Zn, Sb, Cd, and Cr underwent a mild dilution effect connected with anthropogenic activities. The chemostatic behavior of U was regulated by carbonate dissolution and biological uptake. In addition, higher temperatures enhanced biotic activities, affecting the concentrations of Fe and Ni. The relationship between power law slopes and coefficient of variation for discharge and solute concentration suggests that concentrations of trace elements vary significantly with increasing discharge compared with major elements. Silicate mineral weathering had less effect on the fluvial solutes with increasing discharge. Mining activity may exert an additional control on concentration–discharge dynamics of anthropogenic trace elements.     

Spatial and temporal variation in the trends of hydrological response of forested watersheds in Thailand

Thailand has undergone significant forest cover changes in recent decades, and this is likely to have altered the hydrological functioning of many watersheds; however, such potential impacts are not fully understood. To contribute towards a better understanding of the potential hydrological impacts of forest cover changes, this study examines the temporal trends of several hydrological indices in eight watersheds of Thailand over the period from 1982 to 2013. A number of hydrological indices (runoff coefficient, baseflow index, flow duration indices, streamflow elasticity, dryness index) were analysed using a combined Thiel–Sen/Mann–Kendall trend-testing approach, to assess the magnitude and significance of patterns in the observed data. These trend tests indicated that the change in the hydrological response of watersheds varied with the change in structure and composition of forest species. A significant increase in runoff (viz. average flow) was observed in those watersheds covered with natural forests, whereas a significant reduction in runoff (viz. baseflow and low runoff) was observed in those watersheds where the land cover was changed to Para rubber plantations and reforested areas. It is also noteworthy that the watersheds covered by natural forest showed more streamflow elasticity than plantations or reforested areas. These results highlight the importance of considering both forest types/dynamics and watershed characteristics when assessing hydrological impacts.     

The possible role of benthic microbial mats during the formation of carbonaceous shales in shallow Mid-Proterozoic basins

A considerable portion of the upper member of the Mid-Proterozoic Newland Formation, Meagher County, Montana, consists of carbonaceous silty shales (striped shale facies). This type of shale facies is common in Proterozoic basins and is host to several major base metal deposits. The striped shales were deposited in a subtidal setting, basinward of carbonates characterized by cryptalgal laminites, mudcracks and flat pebble conglomerates. The carbonaceous silty shales are considered remnants of benthic microbial mats. Irregular internal laminae, patterns of particle trapping, mechanical deformation during penecontemporaneous soft-sediment deformation and filamentous microbiota provide evidence for this interpretation. The dolomitic clayey shale contains graded silt-clay couplets, and these are interpreted as storm layers. Modern subtidal microbial mats can only survive under special conditions, but in the Proterozoic, it is suggested that benthic microbial mats colonized the shallow seafloor during periods of low sediment input, leading to the formation of carbonaceous shales.     

Modelling the settlement behaviour of a strip footing on sloping sandy fill under cyclic loading conditions

This paper investigates the settlement behaviour of a strip footing seating on the crest of an embankment and subjected to cyclic loading. The embankment fill is a dense sand and the issue is the gradual accumulation of settlement over a large number of load repetitions. Cyclic triaxial tests were first conducted to develop a consistent but simple material model for numerical implementation. Particular emphasis was placed on linking the stress-strain behaviour of an unload-reload cycle to the accumulation of permanent strain, with only five input parameters required to model the cyclic behaviour. The material model was implemented in a numerical analysis to compute the settlement behaviour obtained from model tests conducted by another researcher. It is pertinent to highlight that the same soil, compacted to same density at same moisture content, was used for both the cyclic triaxial tests and model tests. Reasonable to good agreement between the experimental and numerical results was achieved.     

The impact of hydrological conditions on salinisation and nitrate concentration in the coastal Velez River aquifer (southern Spain)

This study reports the impact of hydrological conditions on salinisation and nitrate concentrations of a coastal aquifer located at the Mediterranean Sea, southern Spain. Eighty-two samples of ground- and surface water taken during two extreme hydrological events between 1994 and 1996 at 25 different wells were evaluated with regard to hydrochemistry, focusing on nitrate concentrations and salinisation, which constitute the main hazard of this aquifer. Furthermore, hydrochemical data were analysed by principal component analysis (PCA). Additionally, in 2007 13 ground- and surface water samples taken at 12 different locations were analysed for stable isotopes of D/¹⁸O, and one sample was analysed for ¹⁵N. Since 1993 until present saltwater intrusion was observed only during dry hydrological conditions in 1994; it showed an irregular salinisation pattern probably related to locally elevated hydraulic conductivities. Nitrate concentrations increase significantly during wet hydrologic conditions owing to uptake of nitrate by rising groundwater. Stable isotopes of groundwater reveal an Atlantic origin of the precipitation that recharges the aquifer and a minor amount of groundwater recharge by the water coming from the La Viñuela reservoir, which is used for irrigation over the aquifer. ¹⁵N isotopes point to a considerable input of nitrates derived from organic fertilisers.     

The crisis in South Africa: Material conditions and the reformist response

Very few analysts have identified the broader material circumstances within South Africa which have provided the direct pre-conditions for the present crisis. This paper describes some of these economic factors and indicates the extent and depth of the present crisis. Housing, transport, employment and education provide the focus given their direct links to black protest. Having provided this context for the present unrest the paper then briefly explores the key aspects of the present government's ‘reforms’. The state and capital's policies of ‘controlled’ urbanization and the privatization of the social bases of reproduction are subjected to critical examination. The conclusion reached is that these reforms fail to address the nature of the crisis and as such are unlikely to succeed.