基于线黏弹性接触的落石冲击地面参量理论研究

落石与坡面或者防护结构接触过程中冲击参量随时间变化特征是描述落石碰撞过程的重要指标,对于揭示落石与坡面相互作用机制以及采取合理的防护措施具有重要的意义。在现有的相关设计规范中,并没有给出关于落石冲击力时程关系的计算方法,仅参照有关规范或经验方法确定一个落石最大冲击力值。为此,首先基于线黏弹性接触理论,建立落石冲击地面力学模型,根据位移-速度组合初始条件以及速度-加速度组合初始条件分别推导得到两种落石冲击特征参量理论解析解;然后基于 ANSYS/LS-DYNA 非线性动力学软件,建立落石冲击地面三维数值模型,研究球体落石冲击地面力学特点;最后将理论结果对比室内试验和已有的研究成果,得出以下结论：（1）Hertz 弹性接触理论结果中各参量变化在加载阶段和恢复阶段均呈现对称的趋势,速度、加速度初始条件下的落石冲击特征参量和动力有限元法非常接近,而位移-速度初始条件组合并不适用于研究落石冲击下的动力特征;（2）不同速度和下落高度下,落石最大冲击力值随落石下落高度和冲击速度的增大而增加,而落石冲击作用时间随下落高度和冲击速度的增加而减小;（3）计算结果得到的落石最大冲击力以及落石冲击作用时间与室内试验结果和已有成果相接近,相比室内试验和有限元结果的震荡性,此结果更能体现落石冲击力变化规律; （4）多种冲击速度下,对比不同方法得到的落石最大冲击力,可知计算结果均在各种冲击力计算结果的范围内,具有很好的可靠性。考虑到现有研究理论的不足,难以求解落石冲击力时程关系,求解结果丰富了落石碰撞理论,可以指导工程有关落石灾害的防护设计。     

Vulnerability of simple reinforced concrete buildings to damage by rockfalls

A procedure is presented for investigating the response of reinforced concrete buildings to rockfall impact. The method considers a single rock hit on the basement columns, and it includes four steps: (a) calculation of the probability of a rock impact on a member of the load-bearing system, taking into account the block size and the design of the structure; (b) evaluation of the response of one or more structural elements to the hit based on element capacity; (c) in the case of structural element failure, assessment of the robustness of the whole structural system, calculating the potential for progressive collapse; and (d) calculation of a damage index (DI), which is the ratio of structural elements that fail to the total number of structural elements. The proposed method is applied to a reinforced concrete building for a range of rockfall paths and intensities. The analysis has been carried out for a 2-m-diameter block and velocities < 3.5 m/s. The possible damage range is found to be highly variable, with DI values ranging from 0.01 to 1 depending on the impact location and block velocity.     

落石冲击混凝土棚洞力学特性研究

落石冲击棚洞结构作用过程复杂,缺乏统一的落石冲击力表达式。首先,将落石简化为刚性球体,基于Hertz接触理论,推导得到落石冲击力半正弦算法的理论表达式,考虑落石冲击下棚洞的非弹性特征,根据落石与材料碰撞过程中落石加速度曲线特征,采用函数拟合法推导得到落石法向冲击下其冲击力的理论计算方法;然后,基于ANSYS/LS-DYNA软件建立落石冲击棚洞数值计算模型,研究不同冲击速度下落石冲击棚洞动力特征;最后,与现存常见的多种方法进行对比,得出以下结论：Hertz半正弦法得到的落石冲击力远大于函数拟合法和数值法,而函数拟合法和数值法得到的落石冲击力时程曲线相接近,表明函数拟合法更能反映落石与棚洞接触碰撞动力关系;对比其他计算方法可以得到,Hertz算法适用于分析无能量损失下的弹性碰撞问题,而Logistic算法适用于材料大塑性变形的情况,弹塑性接触理论结果和动力有限元结果存在差异,而采用函数拟合推导的计算方法得到的落石最大冲击力和落石冲击作用时间与动力有限元法更接近,更能反映落石冲击棚洞动力响应特征,推导的落石冲击力计算方法可为工程实践中棚洞防护设计提供理论参考。     

落石冲击荷载作用下的桩板拦石墙结构动力响应

桩板拦石墙是针对2008年"5·12"汶川震区高陡斜坡带高位落石灾害难以实施主动加固,而在拟设拦挡部位所采用的一种被动防护措施,适用地形坡度介于25°~35°。为研究此类桩板结构在落石冲击荷载下的动力响应,采用有限元与无限元耦合进行数值模拟,结合经典弹塑性理论,系统分析了桩板拦石墙在不同冲击工况下弹塑性加载与卸荷回弹过程中冲击力、贯入深度、结构耗能效果等特征参量,明确了结构的抗冲击特性。结果表明,本文采用的"无限元"边界可以有效地减小应力波在人工截断边界处反射造成的误差。在冲击速度为10 m·s-1、15 m·s-1、20 m·s-1、25 m·s-1的情况下,本文计算冲击力的大小分别为1.9 MN、2.5 MN、3.1 MN、3.7 MN,结果与Kawahara模型一致,但较Labiouse模型和Hertz弹性解大。根据混凝土损伤理论,提出了损伤等级分类,有效地量化结构破损程度。当速度大于20 m·s-1时,桩、板混凝土拉压损伤严重,结构存在丧失承载力的风险。本文的计算方法与结果可为相关结构设计提供实际指导。     

Full-Scale Dynamic Analysis of an Innovative Rockfall Fence Under Impact Using the Discrete Element Method: from the Local Scale to the Structure Scale

In order to protect infrastructures against rockfalls, civil-engineered mitigation measures are widely used. Flexible metallic fences are particularly well suited to stop the propagation of blocks of rock whose kinetic energy can reach 5000?kJ before impact. This paper focuses on the design of highly flexible rockfall fences under the new European guideline ETAG027. The experimental testing and the numerical modeling using the discrete element method (DEM) of a new metallic rockfall fence are presented. Several scales of study were considered; the mesh, the net and the entire structure. The calibration of the DEM models is described and a parametrical study is proposed. The latter aims to underline the type of information that can be obtained from numerical simulations of such a system to enhance its design.     

编目图数据形式对区域崩塌易发性评价结果的影响

本文以北京市怀柔区为例,通过现场调查,对688处崩塌灾害分别以面数据和点数据的形式获取了两套编目图。根据现场调查和资料分析,选取岩性、地形、断裂和道路建设作为该区崩塌灾害的主控因素,采用频率比(FR)模型对崩塌灾害的易发性进行了评价。为了对评价结果的预测性进行检验,采用随机分割法,选取了415处崩塌用于频率比模型的计算,剩余的273处崩塌用于评价结果预测性的验证。预测曲线表明,基于崩塌面数据的评价结果比基于点数据的评价结果具有明显的优越性。根据基于面数据的频率比模型评价结果,可以将研究区的崩塌灾害易发性划分为5个等级:较低易发(占全区14%)、低易发(占全区20%)、中等易发(占全区27%)、高易发(占全区22%)和极高易发(占全区17%)。相关工作和结论可以为区域地质灾害易发性评价中编目图的编制提供参考,并为怀柔区区域国土利用和防灾减灾提供指导。     

The impact of rockfalls on dwellings during the 2011 Christchurch,New Zealand,earthquakes

Rockfalls and debris avalanches triggered by earthquakes during the 2010–2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence killed five people and caused an estimated US$400 million in damages. In total, about 200 dwellings were directly impacted by some of the ~6000 rockfalls and debris avalanches that occurred across the Port Hills of Christchurch. This research presents the results of the analysis of a high-quality database of 61 individual rockfall impacts on 29 dwellings in the Port Hills of Christchurch, New Zealand. Dwellings in the Port Hills are typically simple timber-frame structures with wooden or unreinforced masonry cladding, comparable to most dwellings across New Zealand, North America, Australia, and elsewhere. Rockfall impacts on dwellings in this study were observed to follow a power law relationship between kinetic energy and (1) the runout distance into and through the dwelling and (2) the impacted area within the dwelling. The results have been quantified and are presented as a damage proportion, which is defined as the proportion of the area affected by an individual rock block inside the dwelling divided by the total area of the dwelling. These data provide a fundamental input for rockfall risk analysis and will allow the losses from rockfall impacts to be better constrained.     

贺兰口岩画载体落石危害及治理研究

因暴雨、地震和岩羊踩踏等不确定因素,贺兰口沟口至“水关”处发育的34处孤石极易失稳滚落形成落石对岩画和游人安全构成严重威胁。通过对34处孤石数量、成因、分布、岩性和几何特征全面调查与分析的基础上,运用Rocfall软件分析其失稳后的运动过程和能量变化进行分析,得出如下结论:(1)薄层状变质砂岩风化内凹的临空面、岩层层面与两组节理组合切割巨厚层砂岩失稳后堆积于坡面;(2)将落石划分为基岩裸露型、孤石带型和坡面泥石流型3种不同类型;(3)数值模拟结果显示,失稳后弹跳落点有52%~95%的概率在岩画赋存区,所具有能量为301~8412 kJ;最终落点有51%~95%的概率在游客栈道,所具有能量为299~7698 kJ;(4)监测结果表明,水剂比为0.32、平行布孔、间排距20 cm和抵抗线20 cm布置方案为最优,静态破碎结合人工搬运为岩画保护区落石源头治理的最佳方案。为贺兰口岩画保护区落石灾害的源头治理提供了新的途径与参考。     

融合区域潜在落石源区识别的峡谷区落石危险性评价

山西壶关太行山大峡谷景区为中国最美十大峡谷之一,但景区落石灾害频发,严重威胁景区安全运营。本文基于高精度地形信息与岩土体强度特性,采用坡度角分布方法开展区域尺度潜在落石源区识别,并引入岩体破坏敏感性指标定量描述潜在落石源区失稳概率。然后,利用经验模型Flow-R模拟落石运动扩散过程,获取落石的传播概率与能量分布情况。最后,提出落石危险性双因子评价模型实现落石危险性定量评估。获得主要结论如下:(1)研究区内潜在落石源区面积为25.7 km2(35.7%),主要以条带状分布于峡谷两侧陡壁。其中岩体破坏高敏感性区为3.3 km2。(2)研究区落石高危险区面积达3.22 km2,主要威胁景区内游客集散地与交通线路,尤其在S327荫林线红豆峡入口处落石危险性最高。(3)野外调查验证结果表明了应用坡度角分布方法识别潜在落石源区的高效性与准确性,提出的双因子评价模型可为峡谷区落石危险性评估提供快速解决方案。本文提出的“区域落石源区识别-源区失稳概率分析-落石危险性评估”的一整套技术方案能够为类似的高山峡谷区落石灾害早期识别及风险防控提供技术参考。     

柱状岩体崩塌动力特征与破碎规律

柱状岩体崩塌具有分布范围广、破坏能力强、影响范围大的特点。2004年8月12号,重庆甑子岩W12危岩体发生崩塌,崩塌体运动距离约600 m,形成显著超前空气冲击效应,激起浮尘高度约150 m。文章基于MatDEM离散元软件对甑子岩崩塌动力特征与破碎规律进行了研究,建立了按照实际节理分布的崩塌模型,实现了崩塌全过程的模拟,并结合影像资料验证了模型的有效性,在此基础上对MatDEM进行二次开发,统计分析了崩塌过程中岩块粒径演化规律,确定了崩塌过程中的四个显著颗粒破碎时刻,分别为崩塌源区底部岩体受压破碎、中上部岩体撞击低速三角区、中部岩体撞击斜坡地面与上部岩体撞击斜坡地面。引入分形维数与双参数Weibull分布模型分析了崩塌前后颗粒破碎规律,结果显示崩塌后颗粒破碎明显,细粒颗粒占比显著增加。文章为岩体崩塌的动力特征与破碎规律的研究提供了依据。     

Calibration and validation of rockfall modelling at regional scale: application along a roadway in Mallorca (Spain) and organization of its management

The Tramuntana range, in the northwestern sector of the island of Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Spain), is frequently affected by rockfalls which have caused significant damage, mainly along the road network. In this work, we present the procedure we have applied to calibrate and validate rockfall modelling in this region, using 103 cases of the available detailed rockfall inventory (630 rockfall events collected since the eighteenth century). We have exploited STONE (Guzzetti et al. 2002), a GIS-based rockfall simulation software which computes 2D and 3D rockfall trajectories starting from a DTM and maps of the dynamic rolling friction coefficient and of the normal and tangential energy restitution coefficients. The appropriate identification of these parameters determines the accuracy of the simulation. To calibrate them, we have selected 40 rockfalls along the range which include a wide variety of outcropping lithologies. Coefficients values have been changed in numerous attempts in order to select those where the extent and shape of the simulation matched the field mapping. Best results were summarized with the average statistical values for each parameter and for each geotechnical unit, determining that mode values represent more precisely the data. Initially, for the validation stage, 10 well-known rockfalls exploited in the calibration phase have been selected. Confidence tests have been applied to their modelling results taking into account not only the success but also the mistakes. The best accuracy is obtained when the rockfall has a preferential trajectory and worse results when the rockfall follows two or more trajectories. Additionally, the greater the rockfall runout length, the less precise the simulation is. We have further validated the calibrated parameters along the Ma-road (111 km), the main transportation corridor in the range, using 63 rockfall events that occurred during the past 18 years along the road. Of the rockfalls where source areas were properly identified, 81.5 % are well represented by STONE modelling, as the travel paths and the depositional areas are successfully ascertained. Results of the analysis have been used by the Road Maintenance Service of Mallorca to assess hazard and risk posed by rockfall at regional scale to design the road management plan.     

A simplified approach for rockfall ground penetration and impact stress calculations

This paper presents a simple procedure for calculating rockfall penetration and ground impact stress for design of pipeline burial depth. Rockfall may damage pipelines by penetrating through cover soils and damaging the pipeline by puncture or excessive impact stress. Design engineers may face a challenging question regarding what burial depth is required for adequate pipe protection. Greater burial depth may provide better protection; however, there are usually site and economic constraints. This paper discusses a simple procedure for calculating the maximum rock penetration and ground impact stress due to rockfall. The procedure may be used to estimate the minimum burial depth required to protect pipelines from rockfall damage. A case study involving a large boulder that fell down a slope and landed on a buried high-pressure gas pipeline is presented to demonstrate and verify the procedure. A calculation was performed before the removal of the boulder to evaluate whether any damage was made to the pipeline. The calculated results agreed well with the actual conditions observed after the boulder was removed.     

Dynamic characterisation and seismic assessment of medieval masonry towers

The paper investigates the dynamic characterisation, the numerical model tuning and the seismic risk assessment of two monumental masonry towers located in Italy: the Capua Cathedral bell tower and the Aversa Cathedral bell tower. Full-scale ambient vibration tests under environmental loads are performed. The modal identification is carried out using techniques of modal extraction in the frequency domain. The refined 3D finite element model (FEM) is calibrated using the in situ investigation survey. The FEM tuning is carried out by varying the mechanical parameters and accounting for the restraint offered by the neighbouring buildings and the role of soil–structure interaction. The assessment of the seismic performance of the bell towers is carried out through a nonlinear static procedure based on the multi-modal pushover analysis and the capacity spectrum method. Through the discussion of the case studies, the paper shows that the modal identification is a reliable technique that can be used in situ for assessing the dynamic behaviour of monumental buildings. By utilising the tuned FEM of the towers, the theoretical fundamental frequencies are determined, which coincide with the previously determined experimental frequencies. The results from seismic performance assessment through a pushover analysis confirm that the masonry towers in this study are particularly vulnerable to strong damage even when subjected to seismic events of moderate intensity.     

Dynamic characterisation and seismic assessment of medieval masonry towers

The paper investigates the dynamic characterisation, the numerical model tuning and the seismic risk assessment of two monumental masonry towers located in Italy: the Capua Cathedral bell tower and the Aversa Cathedral bell tower. Full-scale ambient vibration tests under environmental loads are performed. The modal identification is carried out using techniques of modal extraction in the frequency domain. The refined 3D finite element model (FEM) is calibrated using the in situ investigation survey. The FEM tuning is carried out by varying the mechanical parameters and accounting for the restraint offered by the neighbouring buildings and the role of soil–structure interaction. The assessment of the seismic performance of the bell towers is carried out through a nonlinear static procedure based on the multi-modal pushover analysis and the capacity spectrum method. Through the discussion of the case studies, the paper shows that the modal identification is a reliable technique that can be used in situ for assessing the dynamic behaviour of monumental buildings. By utilising the tuned FEM of the towers, the theoretical fundamental frequencies are determined, which coincide with the previously determined experimental frequencies. The results from seismic performance assessment through a pushover analysis confirm that the masonry towers in this study are particularly vulnerable to strong damage even when subjected to seismic events of moderate intensity.

     

鄂西山区崩塌落石运动特征及危险性分析

以远安县瓦坡崩塌区为例,通过地质调查、野外测绘、无人机航拍,建立了瓦坡崩塌区三维模型,基于Rockfall Analyst（RA）分析软件,实现了瓦坡崩塌区大量崩塌落石三维空间下运动路径、高度、能量等要素模拟,探究了崩塌区落石的三维运动特征,开展了崩塌区落石危险性评估,为崩塌落石的防治提供科学参考。研究结果表明:崩塌区危岩主要破坏形式为倾倒式,目前处于欠稳定状态;模拟落石三维运动轨迹与已有落石点基本重合,说明此次模拟结果与实际情况较为吻合;落石运动过程中以碰撞弹跳、自由飞落为主,落石主要集中在崩塌区下部冲沟及公路内,部分落石达到居民区,在崩塌落石区下部公路、冲沟及崩塌区右侧危险性较高;崩塌落石防治工程建议采用危石孤石清除+被动防护网,在公路内侧、斜坡下方分别设置5 m高和3 m高抗冲击力2 000 kJ的被动防护网,可有效拦截落石。     

崩塌落石冲击埋地油气管道的动力响应机理研究

高位崩塌落石是造成长输埋地油气管道破坏的主要地质灾害之一.本文通过111处山区管道崩塌案例分析,归纳出崩塌与埋地管道相互作用的3种模式:冲砸管道、牵引管道及埋没管道,其中冲砸管道的危害性最大,并建立了崩塌与管道相互作用的地质力学模型.采用有限元仿真软件系统模拟了落石冲击、土体与管道变形响应过程及影响因素,发现落石冲击管...     

Analysis of rockfall risk on mountainside roads: evaluation of the effect of protection devices

Many kilometres of roads are close to rock slopes that are prone to rockfalls. The fulfilment of safety requirements in such situations is a multidimensional design process involving public and private technicians in the assessment and management of the problem. In this paper, a rockfall risk management approach has been applied to the road infrastructure network of the Regione Autonoma Valle D’Aosta, in order to calculate the level of risk and of its reduction using rockfall protection devices. In order to better understand the methodology, a comparative analysis of road accidents in Aosta Valley has been discussed. The road risk assessment was developed taking into account the absence of rockfall protection devices, and when they are present, different levels of efficacy have been considered.     

RockGIS: a GIS-based model for the analysis of fragmentation in rockfalls

A rockfall is a mass instability event frequently observed in road cuts, open pit mines and quarries, steep slopes and cliffs. After its detachment, the rock mass may disaggregate and break due to the impact with the ground surface, thus producing new rock fragments. The consideration of the fragmentation of the rockfall mass is critical for the calculation of the trajectories of the blocks and the impact energies and for the assessment of the potential damage and the design of protective structures. In this paper, we present RockGIS, a GIS-based tool that simulates stochastically the fragmentation of the rockfall, based on a lumped mass approach. In RockGIS, the fragmentation is triggered by the disaggregation of the detached rock mass through the pre-existing discontinuities just before the impact with the ground. An energy threshold is defined in order to determine whether the impacting blocks break or not. The distribution of the initial mass between a set of newly generated rock fragments is carried out stochastically following a power law. The trajectories of the new rock fragments are distributed within a cone. The fragmentation model has been calibrated and tested with a 10,000 m³ rockfall that took place in 2011 near Vilanova de Banat, Eastern Pyrenees, Spain.     

Rockfall Hazard Analysis for Hong Kong Based on Rockfall Inventory

Summary ¶This paper compiles and analyzes the rockfall data in Hong Kong in the last fifty years. A simple rockfall hazard analysis is presented based on this rockfall inventory. A frequency-magnitude relation, which is analogous to the Gutenberg-Richter relation for earthquake occurrence, is proposed for rockfall, and direct correlation between rockfall frequency and the daily rainfall is observed. Data analysis shows that a threshold daily rainfall of about 150–200mm is expected in order to trigger rockfall events in Hong Kong. Among the 368 rockfall events in the 13 year period from 1984 to 1996 in Hong Kong, 35% of the incidents lead to blockage of or damage to roads, 22% lead to damages or evacuation of squatter huts, 21% lead to blockage of pedestrian pavement and footpath, and 15% affect buildings, such as housing apartments and schools. Only 15% of these rockfalls fell onto open space and caused negligible effects on human activities. Most of these rockfall events occurred during heavy rain and when landslide warning should has been issued by the Hong Kong Observatory, thus only 6% of these events led to injury or casualty, car damages, and damages to public utilities. Rockfall hazard zonation maps in terms of the spatial distribution of previous rockfalls are proposed for both Kowloon Peninsula and Hong Kong Island.     

Ground reinforced embankments for rockfall protection: design and evaluation of full scale tests

Infrastructures such as roads and railways as well as urbanised areas, in mountainside regions, can frequently be endangered by rockfalls and, therefore, need to be protected against the impact of rolling blocks. Among the various protection works that can be used, ground reinforced embankments can be considered a feasible technique. A set of full-scale tests on embankments made of ground reinforced by geogrids are presented and discussed. The experiments were performed in a specifically designed and constructed test facility, where concrete blocks up to 9,000 kg in weight were thrown onto a geogrid reinforced embankment at a speed of about 30 m/s. Several embankments made of different geogrid types, different soils and construction layouts were tested at different impact energy levels, permitting a quantitative assessment of the resistance impact of these structures. The experimental results were compared with those obtained from a dynamic finite element method numerical model, and a good agreement was obtained.