Modelling size effect on rock aggregates strength using a DEM bonded-cell model

Empirical evidence has shown that particle breakage affects the mechanical behaviour of granular materials. The source of this mechanism takes place at the particle scale, and the main consequence on the macromechanical behaviour is increasing compressibility. Due to the inverse correlation between particle size and particle crushing strength, coarse rockfill materials are particularly vulnerable to mechanical degradation due to particle breakage. However, such coarse materials do not fit in standard laboratory devices, and the alternative of large sample testing is usually unavailable or too expensive. Alternatively, recent works have proposed multi-scale approaches using the discrete element method (DEM) to carry out numerical testing of coarse crushable materials, although few studies have focused on size effects. This article presents the application of a DEM bonded-cell model to study particle size-strength correlation on angular rock aggregates. Each particle is modelled by a cluster of perfectly rigid polyhedral cells with Mohr–Coulomb contact law. Constant cell density within particles implies that the presence of potential fragmentation planes increases with size. Therefore, particle strength decreases with size. A comprehensive sensitivity analysis was carried out through 1477 particle crushing simulations in a given particle size. Based on published experimental data on calcareous rock aggregates, part of the simulations were used for calibration, and 97 additional simulations of a coarser size fraction were performed for validation. The results show a good agreement with the empirical data in terms of size effect and data scatter through Weibull statistics.

     

Analysis of wave propagation in dry granular soils using DEM simulations

In this paper, a three-dimensional particle-based technique utilizing the discrete element method (DEM) is proposed to study wave propagation in a dry granular soil column. Computational simulations were conducted to investigate the soil response to sinusoidal motions with different amplitudes and frequencies. Three types of soil deposits with different void ratios were employed in these simulations. Different boundary conditions at the base such as rigid bedrock, elastic bedrock, and infinite medium were also considered. Analysis is done in time domain while taking into account the effects of soil nonlinear behavior. The computational approach is able to capture a number of essential characteristics of wave propagation including motion amplification and resonance. Dynamic soil properties were then extracted from conducted simulations and used to predict the response of the soil using the widely used equivalent linear method program SHAKE and compare its predictions to DEM results. Generally, there was a good agreement between SHAKE and DEM results except when the exciting frequency was close to the resonance frequency of the deposit where significant discrepancy in computed shear strains between SHAKE predictions and DEM results was observed.     

Potential particles: a method for modelling non-circular particles in DEM

Options for defining non-circular (or non-spherical) particles in DEM codes are briefly reviewed before introducing a new concept: potential particles. This method can be used to define convex particles with a wide variety of shapes, from almost polygonal to circular. It is readily applicable in both two and three dimensions. Although contact detection and overlap calculations are not as fast as for circular particles, they can nevertheless be made sufficiently simple and fast for implementation in DEM codes.     

Quantifying the protective function of a forest against rockfall for past,present and future scenarios using two modelling approaches

Following a major rockfall event in 1987, two types of protection measures were taken in the village Saint Martin le Vinoux (French Alps). Firstly, technical measures using civil engineering were installed, and secondly, a forest management intervention to increase its protection was carried out. This study aims to assess whether this intervention was successful in the sense that it improved the protective function of the forest. We evaluated the rockfall risk for the situation of 1987 (before the intervention), today and the future, using model simulations with past, present and future vegetation cover scenarios. To increase the meaningfulness of our results, we used two different models, called Rockfor^.NET, which is a rapid one-dimensional rockfall forest evaluation tool, using simple slope and forest characteristics and RockyFor, a process based on three-dimensional rockfall simulation model that takes the barrier effect of individual trees explicitly into account. Both models correctly predicted that the forest was not capable of stopping rocks from the 1987 rockfall event. Further, both models indicate an increase of the number of rocks reaching the base of the slope from 1987 onwards. RockyFor shows an increase from 11% in 1987 to 19% in 2086. Rockfor^.NET shows an increase from 26% in 1987 to 56% in 2086. We conclude that a second attempt to increase the protective function of the forest should aim at restoring a dense coppice stand.     

Analysis of rockfall risk on mountainside roads: evaluation of the effect of protection devices

Many kilometres of roads are close to rock slopes that are prone to rockfalls. The fulfilment of safety requirements in such situations is a multidimensional design process involving public and private technicians in the assessment and management of the problem. In this paper, a rockfall risk management approach has been applied to the road infrastructure network of the Regione Autonoma Valle D’Aosta, in order to calculate the level of risk and of its reduction using rockfall protection devices. In order to better understand the methodology, a comparative analysis of road accidents in Aosta Valley has been discussed. The road risk assessment was developed taking into account the absence of rockfall protection devices, and when they are present, different levels of efficacy have been considered.     

A random virtual crack DEM model for creep behavior of rockfill based on the subcritical crack propagation theory

The post-construction settlement of rockfill dams and high filled ground of airport, which is a phenomenon of much significance, is mainly caused by the time-dependent breakage of the rockfill material. In this paper, a random virtual crack DEM model is proposed for creep behavior of rockfill in PFC2D according to the theory of subcritical crack propagation induced by stress corrosion mechanisms. The bonded clusters are adopted to represent the rockfill particles so as to simulate their irregular shapes. Virtual cracks are set at the bonds of the clusters, and the length of the crack is considered as a random value, which leads the crushing strength of a single particle to follow the Weibull’s statistical model and the corresponding size rules. Oedometric creep tests for rockfill are simulated by using this proposed model. The results show that the model, validated preliminarily by some test data, can reflect qualitatively the creep mechanism as well as the size effects reasonably. Particles can develop various breakage patterns during creep, including global breakage, local breakage and even complex mixed breakage. The increase in stress levels and particle size will lead to an obvious growth of the creep strain and creep rate of the rockfill. The scale effects on the creep behavior of rockfill are analyzed through 35 specimens, and formulas including the effects of scales and stress levels are tentatively proposed.     

Characterization of clastic rock using a biconcave bond model of DEM

This paper presents a biconcave bond model to investigate the effect of the cementation between grains on the mechanical behavior of rock. The proposed model considers the shape of the bonds among particles that have a biconcave cement form, based on observations of microscopic rock images. The general equations of the proposed model are based on Dvorkin theory. The accuracy and efficiency of the bond model is improved in three ways. After the biconcave bond model is implemented in the discrete element method software Particle Flow Code in 2 Dimensions, a series of numerical uniaxial compression tests were performed to investigate the relationships between the micro‐ to macro‐parameters. The simulations revealed that the biconcave bond model reflects the effect of micro‐parameters, such as the elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio of the cement, on the macroscopic deformation of cemented granular material. Variations in the bond geometry caused extremely diverse macro‐mechanical behaviors. Experimental results concerning rock demonstrate that the biconcave bond model accurately captures the mechanical behavior of intact rock and supports an innovative method for investigating the relationships between the micro‐ and macro‐parameters of cemented granular material. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Constitutive modelling of a reinforced soil using hierarchical model

Drained triaxial tests are conducted on natural and reinforced sand under various stress paths. Direct shear tests and pull-out tests are conducted on soil–reinforcement interface and on reinforcement, respectively. The effects of two types of reinforcement, viz, woven and non-woven geotextile and number of layers of reinforcement are investigated. Hierarchical single surface model is used to depict the behaviour of natural and reinforced soil by treating the soil as a single composite material and by considering soil, reinforcement and interface as independent elements. It is shown that the material parameters are very much affected by the type and the number of layers of reinforcement. The hierarchical model provides satisfactory prediction for both natural and reinforced soil. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

单体危岩崩塌灾害风险评价方法——以四川省丹巴县危岩崩塌体为例

综合分析国内外危岩崩塌风险评价方法的基础上,以丹巴县双拥路危岩崩塌体为例,提出了适用于单体危岩崩塌的风险评价方法。根据蒙特卡洛法的基本原理及方法编制了危岩崩塌体的稳定性可靠度分析程序,计算了不同工况下危岩失稳的概率。同时,考虑地面建筑物对落石的阻挡影响,利用专业软件模拟落石的运动轨迹,并根据研究区的地形地貌特点进一步确定了落石的影响范围。在野外调查和收集当地社会经济资料的基础上,开展了承灾体的易损性研究,对资产的易损性进行了评价。根据危岩失稳的概率及承灾体的易损性分析,进一步得到不同工况下落石影响区内承灾体的经济损失水平,对危岩崩塌灾害的风险进行了定量评价。风险评价的结果可为危岩崩塌灾害影响区的城镇建设和规划提供科学依据,从而有效地规避风险和减灾防灾。     

单体危岩崩塌灾害风险评价方法——以四川省丹巴县危岩崩塌体为例

综合分析国内外危岩崩塌风险评价方法的基础上,以丹巴县双拥路危岩崩塌体为例,提出了适用于单体危岩崩塌的风险评价方法。根据蒙特卡洛法的基本原理及方法编制了危岩崩塌体的稳定性可靠度分析程序,计算了不同工况下危岩失稳的概率。同时,考虑地面建筑物对落石的阻挡影响,利用专业软件模拟落石的运动轨迹,并根据研究区的地形地貌特点进一步确定了落石的影响范围。在野外调查和收集当地社会经济资料的基础上,开展了承灾体的易损性研究,对资产的易损性进行了评价。根据危岩失稳的概率及承灾体的易损性分析,进一步得到不同工况下落石影响区内承灾体的经济损失水平,对危岩崩塌灾害的风险进行了定量评价。风险评价的结果可为危岩崩塌灾害影响区的城镇建设和规划提供科学依据,从而有效地规避风险和减灾防灾。     

DEM filtration modelling for granular materials: Comparative analysis of dry and wet approaches

A detailed study comparing two – dry and wet – numerical approaches to model filtration processes at stake in actual granular filters is presented using the discrete element method (DEM). In the first approach, the migration of fines is provided by gravitational forces, while in the second, hydrodynamic forces induce their movement. Numerical filtration tests were performed on granular filters involving materials with different gradings and porosities. The study demonstrated that the wet filtration approach generates higher tortuosity due to the possibility for fines to deviate from direct paths towards more open sideways. It leads to a lower coefficient of retention for the filter than if it were characterised using a dry filtration approach. However, the intensity of this feature greatly depends on the grading and the porosity of the granular filter. Finally, an enhanced dry filtration model designated as the “equivalent cyclic wet filtration model” is presented, which better mimics the results obtained through the preferable wet filtration model compared to the original dry filtration model. This new model constitutes a valuable alternative tool for studies of filtration properties in granular materials.     

Numerical study on the tunnel stability in granular soil using DEM virtual air bag model

Acta Geotechnica - Granular soil is commonly encountered during underground constructions in and around urban areas. Due to the lack of cohesion in the granular soil, tunneling through it can...     

Suitability of airborne laser scanning for the assessment of forest protection effect against rockfall

Rockfall simulation models are now able to quantify the protective effect of forest with the integration of rock impacts on trees. Those models require spatially explicit forest characteristics which are costly to acquire in operational conditions. The present study compares rockfall simulation results obtained with different forest input data sources: field data with different levels of spatial detail and two methods based on airborne Lidar data. Three different forest stands are tested with several virtual terrain configurations. When rockfall energies are below 200 kJ, the forest protection effect is significant. For higher energies, it also exists but it is minor compared to the effects of topography and rock volume. For all forest input data sources, the estimated rockfall intensity is within ?13 and 16 % of the reference value, whereas the frequency is generally overestimated. Both Lidar methods yield a satisfactory forest protection effect evaluation, but single tree detection tends to underestimate it. Improvements are possible regarding the spatial heterogeneity of stem density and the diameter distribution by tree species.     

Precipitation forecasting using classification and regression trees (CART) model: a comparative study of different approaches

Interest in semiarid climate forecasting has prominently grown due to risks associated with above average levels of precipitation amount. Longer-lead forecasts in semiarid watersheds are difficult to make due to short-term extremes and data scarcity. The current research is a new application of classification and regression trees (CART) model, which is rule-based algorithm, for prediction of the precipitation over a highly complex semiarid climate system using climate signals. We also aimed to compare the accuracy of the CART model with two most commonly applied models including time series modeling (ARIMA), and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) for prediction of the precipitation. Various combinations of large-scale climate signals were considered as inputs. The results indicated that the CART model had a better results (with Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency, NSE?>?0.75) compared to the ANFIS and ARIMA in forecasting precipitation. Also, the results demonstrated that the ANFIS method can predict the precipitation values more accurately than the time series model based on various performance criteria. Further, fall forecasts ranked “very good” for the CART method, while the ANFIS and the time series model approximately indicated “satisfactory” and “unsatisfactory” performances for all stations, respectively. The forecasts from the CART approach can be helpful and critical for decision makers when precipitation forecast heralds a prolonged drought or flash flood.     

参考作物蒸散量的分布式模型

在对参考作物蒸散量计算模型的参数(气压、辐射)进行地形(坡度、坡向和高度)校正的基础上,利用GIS的空间分析功能,建立了基于数字高程模型(DEM)的区域参考作物蒸散量的分布式模型.并以内蒙古半干旱鄂尔多斯高原沙地区(面积为114km2)的考考赖沟流域为例,计算了该区参考作物蒸散量的空间分布.参数校正前后的计算结果比较表明:参考作物蒸散量在受地形影响的情况下,具有较大的空间变异性,且这种变异程度随模型空间分辨率的降低而减小.模型的建立与实现提高了区域蒸散估算的精度,对于区域水分平衡研究和分布式地理模型以及沙质荒漠化防治模式研究具有重要意义.     

Mechanisms of thrust propagation: some examples and implications for the analysis of overthrust terranes

Evidence is presented for the existence of three fundamental mechanisms by which thrust sheets move. The mechanisms are: (1) failure of a stiff layer, to form ramp-flat geometry (‘imbricated’ thrust sheets); (2) detachment of a layer by folding (‘décollement” thrust sheets); (3) differential layer-parallel shortening (‘LPS’ thrust sheets). The mechanisms are independent but may operate interactively to form families of ‘hybrid” thrust sheets. Since LPS thrust sheets have not been previously described or documented, data from the New York plateau, deformed almost exclusively by differential LPS, is presented to demonstrate the physical characteristics of this thrust mechanism.Information from the plateau indicates that finite-strain behavior closely reflects the geometric boundary conditions and is independent of temperature and depth of burial. Finite-strain data are used to construct a set of iso-strain maps in both the deformed and undeformed states. The iso-strain maps are in turn used to determine the displacement field for the thrust sheet. The displacement field allows visualization of the effects of both Lagrangian and Eulerian transformations on an initially orthogonal grid.Utilizing sections from a number of overthrust belts, it is shown that the three mechanisms occur universally although in various proportions. LPS is regionally developed throughout the central and northern Appalachians. The presence of the LPS thrust sheets probably accounts for the failure of structural cross-sections to bed-length balance in these blind thrust terranes. Finally a series of examples drawn from the field as well as the literature are used to illustrate both the characteristics of hybrid thrust sheet families as well as to indicate how knowledge of their behavior can be utilized in developing strategies for the construction and balancing of structural cross-sections.     

A quantitative approach for the evaluation of rockfall risk on buildings

Natural Hazards - A quantitative rockfall risk analysis at local scale is a complex and difficult task because it should consider both the randomness in the natural phenomenon and the variability...