Recent floods in Bangladesh: Possible causes and solutions

In recent years the frequency of abnormal floods in Bangladesh has increased substantially, causing serious damage to lives and property. The most crucial questions that need to be addressed are: what really causes the havoc-creating floods and is there any solution to the problem? The heavy monsoon downpour and synchronization of flood-peaks of the major rivers are generally considered to be the main causes of the floods. Some underlying factors also deserve serious consideration as possible contributors to the recent floods: change in the base level of the rivers due to local sea level rise and subsidence, inadequate sediment accumulation on flood plains, a possible increase in the watershed area due to seismic and neotectonic activities in the region, river bed aggradation due to siltation and damming of rivers, soil erosion due to unwise tilling practices, deforestation in the upstream region, and excessive development and population growth. Without regional cooperation among the co-riparian nations any major interbasin flood control activity is considered to be almost impossible. However, among other proposals in this paper, extensive annual dredging of the rivers, channels and creeks, and reoccupation of the abandoned channels in Bangladesh through re-excavations could still increase the water carrying capacity of the rivers. Land elevations could be increased if the dredged or excavated materials are dispersed on the flood plains, which would in turn reduce the severity of floods.     

新疆天山北坡中段河流冰凌洪水特征分析

冰凌洪水(冰洪)是新疆天山北坡中段河流冬季的一种特殊洪水,其暴发主要受气温、逆温带范围、冬季河流来水量、冰情冰厚、地势.河道弯曲率和河床条件等多种因素影响."冰洪"具有随机性、规律性和不重复性三种特性,冰凌洪水的峰型类似于暴雨洪水具有陡涨陡落的特点,峰前陡峭而落峰则相对缓一些.以四棵树河为典型流域,对冰凌洪水的成因、发展和运动规律进行研究,并发现冰凌洪水具有"水鼓冰开"现象.对四棵树河1967-2006年冰洪流量的年内、年际分布情况看,20世纪70-80年代由于冬季气候寒冷,是"冰洪"发生最多的时期;自进入20世纪90年代以来由于受全球气候变暖等因素影响,冰凌洪水呈现衰退趋势,气候变暖对冰洪影响非常大.     

The effects of removing bed materials on flow velocity (case study: Zaremrood River, Iran)

Nowadays, in parts of Iran, rivers and flood plains are being used as sand and silt mines, and the removal of river bed materials is performed without studying its effects on hydraulic behavior. On the other hand, the flood plain lands are in danger of floods and bank erosion. Zaremrood River in Tajan watershed due to removal of river bed material, two planes of before and after removal with scale of 1:1,000, has been used as basic data. The field investigation was emphasized on the end part of Zaremrood with a length of 5 km and starts from Ghandikola village to Ahoodasht Bridge. Using total station and field observations, the characteristics of reaches and cross sections of right bank, left bank, and main bed of river are written separately. Using software of HEC-RAS, ArcView 3.2, and extension HEC-GeoRAS, the flood zoning with different return periods to investigate water velocity and its changes, geometrical simulation of the bed, sides and flood way of rivers, and then by entering the results of HEC-GeoRAS into hydraulic software HEC-RAS for two before and after planes have been performed, and flow velocity was analyzed for three return periods of 10, 50, and 100 years. The results of this research showed that the velocities due to removal for floods with different return periods have increased, whereas water height and level during removal period have decreased.     

山西二叠系河流沉积特征

山西西部二叠系沉积环境以河流为主,除曲流河外,还有为数不多的辫状河与交织河。曲流河以发育曲流沙坝、洪泛平原和决口扇为其特征。辫状河发育河道沙坝沉积,洪泛平原沉积不太发育。交织河以河道稳定为特征,伴有沼泽沉积,是理想的成煤环境。     

高能洪水沉积研究综述

第四纪巨型堰塞湖溃决产生的高能洪水是地球及其他星球上已知规模最大的陆地淡水事件.越来越多的研究证明高能洪水事件具有普遍性,广泛发育于欧亚大陆、北美洲和南美洲等地区.研究者发现不同地区高能洪水事件的沉积特征具有一定的共性,但其典型沉积序列却依然缺失.本文首先回顾了全球已报道高能洪水案例并介绍了高能洪水的定义,总结了高能洪...     

Diagenesis in Mesozoic sandstones from Spitsbergen and the North Sea — A comparison

Mesozoic and Tertiary sandstones on Spitsbergen are generally tight and well cemented while Mesozoic and Tertiary sandstones from the North Sea include highly porous reservoir rocks.It is concluded that one of the most important controlling mechanisms for preservation of porosity is the build up of high pore pressures which effectively reduce pressure solution at grain contacts and the incidence of quartz overgrowth.High pore pressures are most commonly developed in onlapping sedimentary sequences with an effective shale seal like in the North Sea.Extensive diagenetic growth of kaolinite at the expence of clastic feldspar, which is commonly observed, requires a large flux of low salinity water. The most probable mechanism is fresh ground water drive through sandstones which have served as aquifers. During the late stages of burial (1–3 kms) the diagenetic reactions must have taken place within an isochemical semi-closed system. Calculations show that porewater expelled from compacting shales is insufficient to cause significant changes in the bulk chemistry of thick sandstones. Microprobe analyses carried out on Jurassic sandstones from the Statfjord field show that there are a continuous series of transitions from clastic mica to illite and kaolinite as indicated by a gradual loss of potassium. Evidence is presented to show that silica cementation is retarded in the presence of clastic mica while carbonate and feldspar cementation is favoured in this local high pH environment between sheets of mica. Electron probe analyses show that diagenetic feldspar overgrowths are pure potassium feldspar with a composition significantly different from that of clastic feldspar. During late diagenesis the porewater was most probably near equilibrium with the reactive phases.

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Zusammenfassung Die mesozoischen und tertiären Sandsteine von Spitzbergen sind im allgemeinen gut zementiert, während die gleichalten Sandsteine aus der Nordsee hochporöse Speichergesteine umfassen.Man erkennt, daß die Erhaltung der Porosität auf einen hohen Porenwasserdruck zurückzuführen ist. Dadurch wird Drucklösung an Kornkontakten sowie Weiterwachsen von Quarz verhindert.Hoher Porendruck entsteht gewöhnlich da, wo überlappende Sedimentserien mit einer Abdichtung durch Schiefer vorliegen—wie in der Nordsee.Ausgedehntes diagenetisches Wachstum von Kaolinit auf Kosten klastischer Feldspäte erfordert einen hohen Durchfluß von niedrigsalinem Wasser. Der wahrscheinlichste Mechanismus ist in einem Grundwasserstrom zu suchen, der durch die Sandsteine fließt, die als Wasserleiter dienen. Während der späten Stadien der Absenkung (1–3 km) müssen diese diagenetischen Reaktionen in einem halbgeschlossenem isochemischen System abgelaufen sein. Berechnungen aus Porenwasser, das von Schiefern gewonnen wurde, zeigen, daß dieses nicht ausreicht, bedeutende änderungen in der Gesamtchemie mächtiger Sandsteine zu bewirken.Mikrosondenanalysen, die an jurassischen Sandsteinen aus dem Statfjord-Feld vorgenommen wurden, zeigen, daß hier eine kontinuierliche Serie von übergängen aus klastischem Glimmer nach Illit und Kaolinit vorliegt. Eine stufenweise Abnahme von Kalium deutet dies an. Quarz-Zementation tritt zurück bei Anwesenheit von klastischem Glimmer, während Karbonat- und Feldspat-Zementation unter den Bedingungen eines hohen pH-Wertes zwischen den Glimmer-Blättern bevorzugt erscheint. Mikrosondenanalysen zeigen, daß der diagenetisch aufgewachsene Feldspat ein reiner Kali-Feldspat ist, der sich beträchtlich von den klastischen Feldspäten unterscheidet. Während der späten Diagenese stand das Porenwasser nahezu im Gleichgewicht mit den reagierenden Phasen.

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Résumé Les grès mésozoÏques et tertiaires du Spitzberg sont en général bien cimentés, tandis que les grès de mÊme âge de la Mer du Nord comprennent des roches-réservoirs très poreuses. On en conclut que l'un des plus importants mécanismes régissant le maintien de la porosité est la mise en jeu de fortes pressions dans les pores de la roche, ce qui effectievement réduit la dissolution par la voie de la pression s'exerÇant au contact des grains et l'intervention de la croissance des grains de quartz.De fortes pressions dans les pores sont le plus couramment développées dans les séquences sédimentaires isolées par un recouvrement argileux, comme dans la Mer du Nord.La croissance diagénétique à grande échélle de la kaolinite aux dépens du feldspath détritique, communément observée, requiert une grande circulation d'eau à faible salinité. Le mécanisme le plus probable est celui de la circulation d'eau douce dans des grès aquifères. Durant les derniers stades de l'enfouissement (1–3 km) les réactions diagénétiques se sont produites dans un système isochimique à moitié fermé. Des calculs montrent que l'eau poreuse chassée des argilites à la suite de leur compaction est insuffisante pour causer des changements de quelqu'importance dans la composition chimique des grès en masses épaisses. Des analyses à la microsonde sur des grès jurassiques de la région du Statfjord montrent qu'il existe une gamme continue de transitions depuis le mica détritique jusqu'à l'illite et la kaolinite, ainsi qu'il ressort de la perte graduelle du potassium. La preuve est donnée que la cimentation par la silice est retardée par la présence de mica détritique, tandis que la cimentation par le carbonate et par le feldspath est favorisée dans ce milieu restreint à pH élevé entre lamelles de mica. Des analyses électroniques montrent que les accroissements diagénétiques de feldspath sont faits de feldspath potassique pur d'une composition notablement différente de celle del feldspath détritique. A la fin de la diagénèse l'eau intersticielle était très probablement proche de l'équilibre avec les phases réagissantes.

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Settlement relocations in the char-lands of Padma River basin in Ganges delta, Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a unique hydro-geological setting and deltaic floodplain which is jointly formed by the deposition of the Ganges (Padma), Brahmaputra (Jamuna) and Meghna River. The physical characteristics of the geographic location, river morphology and the monsoon climate render Bangladesh highly vulnerable to natural disasters, primarily, floods and cyclones. River flooding has exerted a great impact on the culture and socioeconomic activities. The char people and their settlements in the Padma River channel are under threat due to floods and associated river bank erosion. The excess of water happens during the monsoon season because of widespread flooding that damages char-land settlements, agricultural crops, infrastructure and communication networks. Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza of Char-Janajat is largely affected by annual floods, and as a result the char people are displaced frequently from one place to another within and/or outside the char. The dwellers can return to the native char when new land emerges in the river channel after floods. This study has revealed that the displacement of char settlement takes place in almost every 3–5a at Purba Khas Bandarkhola Mouza of Char-Janajat. Our findings shed light on the char flood disaster management and social adaptation plan for settlement development of char livelihood in the Padma River basin in the Ganges delta of Bangladesh.     

新疆河道特征及洪水灾害治理研究

新疆河流洪水具有陡涨陡落、泥砂含量高、突发性强等特点。冲积扇河道纵坡大,上、中游河道表现为冲刷或冲淤基本平衡,河道防护工程洪水期冲刷问题突出。河流中下游纵坡明显减缓,河道加宽变浅,频繁摆动游荡。河流纵向、横向输沙不平衡引起河势改变,引起河道冲刷崩岸及洪水灾害。通过对新疆河流、河道特征,水力学要素及河床演变、河道冲淤规律分析,根据新疆河道特点及防洪实践,提出了河道治理思路及防护工程布置方法,对不同河段防护工程设计参数的选取、河道整治建筑物的结构型式等问题进行了探讨。     

Riverine flood assessment in Jhang district in connection with ENSO and summer monsoon rainfall over Upper Indus Basin for 2010

Pakistan has experienced severe floods over the past decades due to climate variability. Among all the floods, the flood of 2010 was the worst in history. This study focuses on the assessment of (1) riverine flooding in the district Jhang (where Jhelum and Chenab rivers join, and the district was severely flood affected) and (2) south Asiatic summer monsoon rainfall patterns and anomalies considering the case of 2010 flood in Pakistan. The land use/cover change has been analyzed by using Landsat TM 30 m resolution satellite imageries for supervised classification, and three instances have been compared, i.e., pre-flooding, flooding, and post-flooding. The water flow accumulation, drainage density and pattern, and river catchment areas have been calculated by using Shutter Radar Topography Mission digital elevation model 90 m resolution. The standard deviation of south Asiatic summer monsoon rainfall patterns, anomalies and normal (1979–2008) has been calculated for July, August, and September by using rainfall data set of Era interim (0.75° × 0.75° resolution). El Niño Southern Oscillation has also been considered for its role in prevailing rainfall anomalies during the year 2010 over Upper Indus Basin region. Results show the considerable changing of land cover during the three instances in the Jhang district and water content in the rivers. Abnormal rainfall patterns over Upper Indus Basin region prevailed during summer monsoon months in the year 2010 and 2011. The El Niño (2009–2010) and its rapid phase transition to La Niña (2011–2012) may be the cause of severity and disturbances in rainfall patterns during the year 2010. The Geographical Information System techniques and model based simulated climate data sets have been used in this study which can be helpful in developing a monitoring tool for flood management.     

Three Recent Extreme Floods in Bangladesh: A Hydro-Meteorological Analysis

Bangladesh is highly vulnerableto floods due to its geographical location at the deltas of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna (GBM) rivers. About 92.5 per cent of the area of three basins lies outside the boundaries of the country. More than 80 per cent of the annual precipitation of Bangladesh occurs in the monsoon period between June and September. The hydro-meteorological characteristics of the three river basins are unique and they often cause large to extremely large floods in Bangladesh. It is possible that these floods could inundate 70 per cent of the country and the physical damage could be very serious for the economy of Bangladesh with its low gross domestic product (GDP). In 1987, 1988 and 1998, Bangladesh experienced three extreme floods, leaving trails of devastation and human misery. In this article it is demonstrated that these floods differed in terms of magnitude, extent, depth and duration. The external and internal hydro-meteorological dynamics were also different.     

黄河下游洪水冲淤相对平衡的分组含沙量阈值探讨

河床冲淤相对平衡下的洪水分组含沙量阈值是多泥沙河流水沙调控的重要参数.基于河床演变学的原理,根据黄河下游200余场次洪水实测资料,探讨了洪水分组含沙量阈值和分组来沙系数阈值.研究表明,黄河下游洪水过程中,在一定的分组含沙量及来沙系数条件下,可以使得河床冲淤达到相对平衡.对于悬沙以细泥沙为主的洪水,其河槽冲淤临界含沙量与主槽单宽流量、最大日均流量、花园口以下河段最小平滩流量、床沙中值粒径大于0.05 mm的沙重百分数有关;对于悬沙以中粗泥沙为主的临界含沙量则与粒径大于0.05 mm的沙重百分数无关;对于悬沙以粗泥沙为主的临界含沙量除与细泥沙临界含沙量的因素有关外,还与悬沙中值粒径小于0.025 mm、大于0.05 mm的沙重百分数有关.对于含沙量级相近的洪水,若流量级不同,同样可以产生不同的冲淤结果,即存在着分组来沙系数临界值.     

Flood generating mechanisms at Ilorin,Nigeria

Floods are now becoming a feature of city life at Ilorin (8°30N, 4°35E) in Nigeria. In the decade 1971–80 the town experienced the occurrence of three flood events. In this study, it has been shown that heavy rains greater than 25.4 mm/day induce floods when they occur in a month about three or more times during the period of moisture surplus at Ilorin. The study shows further that the construction of Asa dam has not prevented the occurrence of floods at Ilorin which is situated downstreams of the dam on account of the network characteristics and channel slopes of the tributary streams and the increasing rate of urban development downstream of the dam.     

An Assessment of Flood Forecasting in Bangladesh: The Experience of the 1998 Flood

Floods are among the most costly natural disasters interms of human sufferings and economic losses inBangladesh. Approximately 20% of the countryexperiences normal annual flooding while all thehistorical catastrophic floods inundated more thanfifty percent of the country's total area. The recentflood in 1998 has been found to be more severe thanall previous floods. During the flooding season of1998, the Flood Forecasting and Warning Center (FFWC)of the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB)prepared daily flood bulletin and incorporatedinformation about rainfall, rise/fall of riverwater, flood forecasting for 24 and 48 hr inadvance and warning messages (if any). The FFWCattempted to provide adequate services to the localand national level decision-making process. Theforecasting procedure adapted by the FFWC was based onhydrological information, forecaster's experience, andmodel simulation. This paper primarily examines therole and activities of the FFWC, especially in floodforecasting and warning. Identification of the causesand consequences of 1998 flood is the other pertinentarea of discussion of the paper.Findings of this research revealed that the flood of1998 was caused by heavy downpour in the upstream thatwas drained out through the major rivers inBangladesh. Three major rivers' peak was synchronizedand characterized it as the most prolonged flood inthe history of Bangladesh. It also revealed that,despite various limitations, the flood forecasts ofthe FFWC were reasonably adequate to meet nationaldemand during the crises of 1998.     

长江流域历史洪水的周期地理学研究

从周期地理学的角度,探讨长江历史洪水的频发特点和周期规律,认为影响长江历史洪水的基本周期因子,与近日点日月交食年周期、太阳黑子活动周期和历史气候周期等因素有较大的关联性。而近几个世纪以来长江洪水频率的不断加快,表明人类活动扰乱和改变了历史洪水原有的周期值,使长江历史洪水周期打上了人类活动的深刻烙印。     

中小河流山洪预警预报系统开发设计及应用

我国中小河流众多,山洪频发,洪灾损失严重,是造成人员伤亡的主要灾种。目前,我国中小河流山洪预报预警技术研究还处于初步阶段,山洪监测预警系统尚在试点建设中。介绍水利部公益性项目"中小河流突发性洪水监测与预警预报技术研究"开发的中小河流山洪预警预报原型系统,包括基于分布式水文模型、动态临界雨量的山洪预警预报方法,山洪预警预报原型系统的总体结构、软件设计与功能实现,以及在其中一个示范区江西遂川江的试运行情况,并对其实际应用进行了分析,以期为当前所开展的中小河流洪水易发区水文监测预警项目及全国山洪灾害防御非工程措施建设等工作提供参考。     

网状河流的构型、流量-宽深比关系和能耗率

网状河流作为一类新河型,已经受到研究者的关注,但对其研究还不充分.该研究基于目前已经报道过的资料及新近取得的研究成果,从河流构型、河道过水断面宽深比与流量关系及能耗率等方面对该河型展开论述,期望引起大家对该河型的兴趣.网状河流在许多方面表现出了独有的特色.从平面构型来看,它以相互连通的多河道围绕非常稳定的泛滥盆地为特征,其中泛滥盆地上植被发育、沼泽湖泊可见.从河道纵、横剖面来看,它具有非常小的河道比降和一般小于40的河道宽深比,总体上属于各类河型中最小的.从沉积体系的剖面构型来看,它以多个孤立的河道砂体"漂浮"在细粒泥质沉积物中为特征.在河道过水断面宽深比与流量的半对数图中可见,其宽深比随流量的增大而减小,并且其散点位于各类河流的最下部.由于其河道比降一般很小,多河道体系中的单个河道的流量相对于其决口前的老河道显然较小,从而其能耗率就相对很小.文中所讨论到的长江三口分流网状河道:东松滋河、西松滋河、虎渡河、藕池河、北藕池河和松澧合流,其能耗率分别为3.0 W/m2,5.5 W/m2,2.8 W/m2,6.4 W/m2,3.7 W/m2和2.7 W/m2,显然都小于10 W/m2,这与长江主河道在枝江附近的140 W/m2相比,差两个数量级.所有这些特征都预示着网状河流与以长江中下游为代表的分汊河流之间有着完全不同的特性,与其他河型更是大相径庭.     

Analysis of flood vulnerability and assessment of the impacts in coastal zones of Bangladesh due to potential sea-level rise

The 4th IPCC report highlights the increased vulnerability of the coastal areas from floods due to sea-level rise (SLR). The existing coastal flood control structures in Bangladesh are not adequate to adapt these changes and new measures are urgently necessary. It is important to determine the impacts of SLR on flooding to analyse the performance of the existing structures and corresponding impact to plan for suitable adaptation and mitigation measures to reduce the impacts of floods on coastal zone. The study aims to develop a comprehensive understanding of the possible effects of SLR on floods in the coastal zone of Bangladesh. A hydrodynamic model, which is a combination of surface and river parts, was utilized for flood simulation. The tool was applied under a range of future scenarios, and results indicate both spatial variability of risk and changes in flood characteristics between now and under SLR. Estimated impact on population, infrastructure and transportation is also exposed. These types of impact estimation would be of value to flood plain management authorities to minimize the socio-economic impact.     

试论地质学在防洪减灾中的作用和意义——兼论长江防洪策略

流域洪灾的形成直接受到地质、地貌条件的制约。洪灾是由洪水引发的，但洪水并不等于洪灾，由暴雨发展为洪水、洪灾是一种外动力地质作用过程。暴雨是一种气象现象，洪水是一种水文现象，而暴雨→洪水→洪灾，则是一种地质过程。因此，地质学在防洪、减灾中具有重要意义。根据地质学原理，长江防洪策略为：①沿江干堤不宜继续加高；②干堤加固应因地（地质、地貌条件）制宜，要考虑到三峡工程可能引起的河流地质作用变化；③启用古河道分流泄洪；④“退田还湖”与“挖泥还湖”相结合；⑤“平垸行洪”与“民垸蓄洪”结合；⑥实施有计划地开提放淤工程，防洪与除渍结合；⑦区段综合治理与全流域系统治理结合。     

Facies and depositional model of alluvial fan dominated by episodic flood events in arid conditions: An example from the Quaternary Poplar Fan,north-western China

Alluvial fans are usually constructed through episodic flood events. Despite the significance of these ephemeral floods on the morphodynamics of alluvial fans, depositional responses to the variations in flood conditions are still poorly documented. This greatly limits the ability to interpret ancient sedimentary successions of fans and the associated flood hydrodynamics. The Quaternary Poplar Fan from endorheic Heshituoluogai Basin provides an optimal case for addressing this issue. Based on the variations in facies associations and flood conditions, three depositional stages – namely; lobe building stage, channel building stage and the abandonment stage – are identified. During the lobe building stage the Poplar Fan is predominately constructed through incised channel flood, sheetflood and unconfined streamflood, with coeval development of distal surficial ephemeral ponds. The channel building stage is characterized by the development of gravelly braided rivers. However, only scour pool fill deposits are preferentially preserved in the Poplar Fan. During the abandonment stage, erosional lags and aeolian sands randomly occur throughout the fan, while gully deposits can only be found in the distal fan. The distinctive facies architecture of the Poplar Fan is likely to be the result of periodicity of climate fluctuations between wetter and drier conditions during the Late Pleistocene to Holocene. The ephemeral floods formed under wetter conditions usually show high discharge and sediment concentrations which facilitate the lobe building processes. During the drier periods, only gravelly braided rivers can be developed through ephemeral floods as the intensity and frequency in precipitation, discharge and sediment concentrations of the flood flows significantly decrease. The abandonment stage of the fan may occur between recurring flood episodes or during the driest periods. Furthermore, the long-term (10⁵ to 10⁶ year) geomorphic evolution of the Poplar Fan shows the influence of tectonic activities. The ongoing thrust uplift tectonic activities have caused destruction of the fan but can also facilitate the fan-head trench/incision of the fan, which in turn facilitate the progradation of the fan. This study proposes a new depositional model for alluvial fans constructed through episodic flood events, which shows the character of both sheet-flood dominated and stream-flow dominated end members of alluvial fans. These findings supplement the understanding of the variability of the alluvial fans and provide means to characterize rock record of alluvial fans and their associated flood and climate conditions.