OPTIMA: A Photon Counting High-Speed Photometer

OPTIMA is a small, versatile high-speed photometer which is primarily intended for time resolved observations of young high energy pulsars at optical wavelengths. The detector system consists of eight fiber fed photon counters based on avalanche photodiodes, a GPS timing receiver, an integrating CCD camera to ensure the correct pointing of the telescope and a computerized control unit. Since January 1999 OPTIMA proves its scientific potential by measuring a very detailed light-curve of the Crab Pulsar as well as by observing cataclysmic variable stars on very short timescales. In this article we describe the design of the detector system focussing on the photon counting units and the software control which correlates the detected photons with the GPS timing signal. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The “Quantochron 4-48” facility for registration of random fluxes of multidimensional signals

A facility for the registration of light fluxes meant for the study of their properties with high temporal resolution is described. The “Quantochron 4-48” acquisition facility measures the photon arrival times using periodic signals of three types-second-long period signals (pps), 10-kHz, and 30-MHz signals. The first two come from a GPS, whereas the latter signal comes from the PCI bus of the computer connected to the facility. These time scales are used to produce for each time instant a 28-bit time code supplemented by 48 bits bearing the information about the coordinates, energy, and polarization of the photon at the output of the detector. The sequence of complete 64-bit words is buffered in FIFO memory and sent to computer RAM. The device has as its base element a XILINX SPARTAN XCS40XL PQ240AKP0505 microchip incorporated into a PCI slot. The registration facility consists of two PC servers equipped with these boards and a control computer. The facility determines the photon arrival times to within 30 ns with a dead time of 30 ns and maximum lossless count rate of 10⁶ photons/s. The registration facility allows continuous recording of detector counts over 17 hours with a one microsecond World-Time (UT) calibration accuracy.     

An Imaging Photon Counting Intensified CCD for High Speed Photometry

The scientific performance evaluation of a photon countingimaging system is presented. The detector is constituted by an ICCD camera with RbTe photocathode(optimized for UV radiation), and dedicated electronics for the acquisition and analysis ofthe events. For each photon event on the CCD, a real-time centroid calculation is performed, inorder to reach spatial resolution down to 25 m FWHM. The system has been tested usingthe 182 cm telescope of the Asiago Observatory.A standard stars field through U Johnson filter,and the Crab pulsar (PSR 0531+21) were observed. From the photometric data, relative magnitudes of the standard stars have been derived, showing a goodlinearity of the detector in the range of flux under consideration, as expected fromprevious laboratory measurements.The pulsar's data have been processed by FFT and epoch foldingtechniques to testthe detector's timing performances in the highest resolutionmode (4.512 ms).These observations show that a space resolved time analysis ofperiodic sources can be performed with 10^-7 s accuracy.     

GPS定时技术在电力系统电压相角测量中的应用

全球定位系统（GPS）是当今世界上最精确的定时系统之一,在利用GPS定时技术的基础上,提出了一种电力系统电压相角的同步测量方法．     

大气指数模型与探空资料分析的比较─关于广州地区大气层对GPS信号时间延迟问题研究之一

ＧＰＳ系统是现阶段功能最全、精度最高的卫星导航系统，大气层对ＧＰＳ系统定位和定时的影响已成为一个不可忽略的重要因素．本文从广州地区两天各两个时刻的气象探空资料中分析了各个时刻高空中几个已知高度点的折射指数，然后用线性处理的办法得到了１７ｋｍ范围左右高空中折射指数的模型，大气指数模型与此模型相比较，几个点折射指数的均方差很小，最后用这两种模型分别计算两天各两个时刻大气层对ＧＰＳ信号在垂直传播时所引起的附加时间延迟，二者之差最大不大于０．３ｎｓ，用指数模型可基本反映广州地区大气层对ＧＰＳ信号传播时间延迟的影响。     

基于UTC（NTSC）的GPS定时接收机时延测量

GPS提供了一种精密定时的方法,但接收机绝对时延的测量是一个难题,现有的测量方法成本高且难以操作,因而提出了一种GPS定时接收机时延测量的简单方法。这种方法根据国家授时中心保持的时间尺度UTC（NTSC）与GPS定时接收机输出的秒脉冲信号（1PPS）的比对结果,利用UTC（NTSC）的国际比对数据以及UTC与GPST的时差数据,可以测量GPS定时接收机时延,该方法简单易行。最后,对这种方法的测量误差进行了分析。     

A new generation photodetector for astroparticle physics: The VSiPMT

The VSiPMT (Vacuum Silicon PhotoMultiplier Tube) is an innovative design we proposed for a revolutionary photon detector. The main idea is to replace the classical dynode chain of a PMT with a SiPM (G-APD), the latter acting as an electron detector and amplifier. The aim is to match the large sensitive area of a photocathode with the performance of the SiPM technology. The VSiPMT has many attractive features. In particular, a low power consumption and an excellent photon counting capability. To prove the feasibility of the idea we first tested the performance of a special non-windowed SiPM by Hamamatsu (MPPC) as electron detector and current amplifier. Thanks to this result Hamamatsu realized two VSiPMT industrial prototypes. In this work, we present the results of a full characterization of the VSiPMT prototype.     

Detection of atmospheric Cherenkov radiation using solar heliostat mirrors

There is considerable interest world-wide in developing large area atmospheric Cherenkov detectors for ground-based gamma-ray astronomy. This interest stems, in large part, from the fact that the gamma-ray energy region between 20 and 250 GeV is unexplored by any experiment. Atmospheric Cherenkov detectors offer a possible way to explore this region, but large photon collection areas are needed to achieve low energy thresholds. We are developing an experiment using the heliostat mirrors of a solar power plant as the primary collecting element. As part of this development, we built a detector using four heliostat mirrors, a secondary Fresnel lens, and a fast photon detection system. In November 1994, we used this detector to record atmospheric Cherenkov radiation produced by cosmic ray particles showering in the atmosphere. The detected rate of cosmic ray events was consistent with an energy threshold near 1 TeV. The data presented here represent the first detection of atmospheric Cherenkov radiation using solar heliostats viewed from a central tower.     

GPS定时接收机的校准

GPS共视比对(GPS CV)是国际原子时进行时间连接的主要手段之一,即使在有TWSTFT(卫星双向时间频率传递)的实验室GPS也作为时间比对的备用手段而存在,而且TWSTFT系统启用时需用GPS做校准。国际权度局(BIPM)为了减小比对误差,对一些时间实验室的GPS接收机进行不定期校准。国家授时中心(NTSC)利用BIPM给出的校准报告对NTSC时间基准实验室的GPS定时型接收机的内部时延及相关数据进行修正,使UTC(NTSC)的准确度得到提高。     

大气层对GPS信号传播影响的规律之探讨──关于广州地区大气层对GPS系统定位定时影响问题研究之二

大气层对ＧＰＳ信号的传播有时间延迟作用，时廷将影响ＧＰＳ系统的定位和定时精度，且随气象因素的变化而变化．本文根据３年有关的气象资料，采用大气指数模型分析了广州地区大气层随昼夜变化、季节变化和太阳活动变化对ＧＰＳ信号传播时延影响的变化规律．分析得知，在信号垂直传播时，大气层对ＧＰＳ信号传播的影响，用距离表示．最大时为２．６９１ｍ，最小时也会产生１．９９３ｍ的误差；如果信号斜传播，误差因仰角因素将更大．     

Photon Spectroscopy with Imaging X-Ray Instruments

Individual X-ray photons in the keV energy range produce hundreds of photoelectrons in a single pixel of a CCD array detector. The number of photoelectrons produced is a linear function of the photon energy, allowing the measurement of spectral information with an imaging detector system. Most solar X-ray telescopes, such as Yohkoh/SXT and Hinode/XRT, use CCD detectors in an integrating mode and are designed to make temperature estimates from multiband filter photometry. We show how such instruments can be used in a new way to perform a limited type of this photon spectroscopy. By measuring the variance in intensity of a series of repeated images through a single filter of an X-ray source, the mean energy per detected photon can be determined. This energy is related to the underlying coronal spectrum, and hence it can be used to deduce the mean plasma temperature. We apply this technique to data from the Yohkoh Soft X-Ray Telescope and compare the temperatures obtained with this technique with the temperatures derived using the standard filter ratio method for a postflare loop system. Given the large dynamic range of the soft X-ray flux observed from the Sun, we describe the requirements for a future instrument that would be better suited to performing photon spectroscopy. B.J. Labonte deceased 24 October 2005.     

Cherenkov τ shower earth-skimming method for PeV–EeV ντ observation with Ashra

We describe a method of observation for PeV–EeV τ neutrinos using Cherenkov light from the air showers of decayed τs produced by τ neutrino interactions in the Earth. Aiming for the realization of neutrino astronomy utilizing the Earth-skimming τ neutrino detection technique, highly precise determination of arrival direction is key due to the following issues: (1) clear identification of neutrinos by identifying those vertices originating within the Earth’s surface and (2) identification of very high energy neutrino sources. The Ashra detector uses newly developed light collectors which realize both a 42°-diameter field-of-view and arcminute resolution. Therefore, it has superior angular resolution for imaging Cherenkov air showers. In this paper, we estimate the sensitivity of and cosmic-ray background resulting from application of the Ashra-1 Cherenkov τ shower observation method. Both data from a commissioning run and a long-term observation (with fully equipped trigger system and one light collector) are presented. Our estimates are based on a detailed Monte Carlo simulation which describes all relevant shower processes from neutrino interaction to Cherenkov photon detection produced by τ air showers. In addition, the potential to determine the arrival direction of Cherenkov showers is evaluated by using the maximum likelihood method. We conclude that the Ashra-1 detector is a unique probe into detection of very high energy neutrinos and their accelerators.     

基于GPS射频信号模拟的定时方法

针对采用GPS定时的设备提出了基于GPS射频信号模拟的定时方法,在不更改原有设备的情况下,可利用外部时间基准进行同步。首先建立卫星的轨道模型,模拟出卫星的导航电文;然后根据设备的位置模拟产生观测数据;再将导航电文调制到卫星的伪随机码上,根据观测数据计算出伪距,对调制的信号进行延迟;最后,通过正交射频调制得到GPS模拟信号。已建立的实验模型能实现以上模拟过程。测试表明,该方法可达到10ns级的定时精度。     

A Fully Depleted pn-Junction CCD for Infrared-, UV- and X- ray detection

This paper describes the performance of the Fully Depleted pn-junction CCD (pn-CCD) system, developed for ESA's XMM-satellite mission for soft x-ray imaging and spectroscopy in the single photon counting mode in the 100 eV to 10 keV photon range. The 58 mm x 60 mm large pn-CCD array, designed and fabricated at the Semiconductor Lab (Halbleiterlabor) of the Max-Planck-Institut, uses pn-junctions for registers and as backside structure. This concept naturally enables full depletion of the detector volume independent of the silicon wafer's resistivity and thickness, and as such make it an efficient detector for the x-ray region and the infrared. For high detection efficiency in the soft x-ray region and UV, an ultrathin pn-CCD backside deadlayer has been realized. Each pn-CCD-channel is equipped with its own on-chip JFET amplifier which, in combination with the CAMEX-amplifier and multiplexing chip, facilitates parallel readout and fast data rate: the cooled pn-CCD system can be read out at a data rate up to 3 MHz with an electronic noise floor of ENC < 5 e-.     

GPS同步恒星钟

主要叙述了利用ＧＰＳ定时接收机输出的时间信息和一系列电路完成平太阳时－恒星时转换的ＧＰＳ同步恒星钟的工作原理,以及“平化恒”时差改正的实现方法。     

The Investigation of Optical Variability on Time Scales of 10-7-102S: Hardware, Software, Results

We present a hardware/software complex for photometric observations with high time resolution. The hardware consists of a detector, a recording system which is a "time - coded" converter, a PC/AT 486 computer and a tape recorder. As a detector we can use any device that provides its output in such a way that for every detected quantum there is a correspondent standard impulse with additional information on the quantum - space coordinates, frequency, polarization, etc. A special "time - coded" converter "Quantochron" registers the quanta arrival times with an accuracy of ± 20 nanoseconds stores in the computer the 16-bit codes as well as the 16-bit codes of additional information. At present, the photometer complex allows to register without distortion the flux events up to 380 kHz. We describe the special methods and software capable of searching and analyzing any type of photon flux intensity variations. The results of the high time resolution investigations of a number of relativistic and fast variable objects, such as black hole candidates, LMXB, pulsars and flare stars, are presented.     

网平差在TAI计算中的应用

截至目前，用于TAI计算的GPS共视时间传递链路采用固定链路，以CRL、NIST和OP作为3个主要中心站，形成一个连接全球约50个时间实验室的时间比对链路，采用固定链路是为TAI计算方便，而人为规定的，具有简单、工作量较小等特点，但是整个TAI GPS共视时间比对对这3个中心站的依赖度过高，一旦这3个中心站不能正常观测，将影响TAI的计算，就GPS共视法这种技术本身而言，可支持任意链路的时间比对，并可形成网络化的比对结果，在TAI计算时，对GPS共视比对结果，采用网平差处理技术，可提高TAI计算的可靠性，避免因中心站观测故障而导致一个区无法参加比对的情况发生。     

一种低噪声硅微条探测器读出电子学系统的设计

硅微条探测器空间分辨率高、工作性能稳定, 广泛地应用于空间高能粒子探测领域. 如费米gamma射线空间望远镜(Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope, FGST)以及阿尔法磁谱仪(Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2, AMS-02)的径迹探测器中都采用了高位置分辨率的硅微条探测器. 基于硅微条探测器在空间观测领域的应用前景, 针对硅微条探测器单元设计了一套低噪声的电子学读出系统. 整个电子学系统分为前端电子学、数据获取电路和上位机软件. 前端电子学为提高集成度, 采用了一款电荷读出芯片VATAGP8, 实现了多通道、低噪声的电荷信号测量; 数据获取电路使用现场可编程门阵列(Field Programmable Gate Array, FPGA)实现了对前端电子学的时序控制以及对测量信号的采集控制; 上位机用来接收、处理数据获取电路采集的信号数据. 在对电子学通道的线性、基线、噪声等性能进行测试之后, 得到系统在0--200fC电荷输入范围内的线性增益约为13.41bin/fC, 积分非线性小于1%, 噪声小于0.093fC. 为了验证电子学读出系统对硅微条探测器单元的读出能力, 将两者集成在一起并测试了宇宙线缪子的能量沉积, 得到读出电子学系统的信噪比大于32, 缪子的电离损失能谱与Landau-Gaussian分布符合较好, 能够满足硅微条探测器单元读出电子学的设计要求.     

GPS 导航电文中时间参数的变化特点

GPS导航电包含有GPS卫星的位置参数和时间参数,是定位,定时用户都必须使用的,随着GPS的改进,导航电民有所变,GPS导航电中时间参数的变化特点及SA对卫星钟的影响是这里着重讨论的内容。     

Photon counting strategies with low-light-level CCDs

Low light level charge-coupled devices (L3CCDs) have recently been developed, incorporating on-chip gain. They may be operated to give an effective readout noise of much less than one electron by implementing an on-chip gain process allowing the detection of individual photons. However, the gain mechanism is stochastic and so introduces significant extra noise into the system. In this paper we examine how best to process the output signal from an L3CCD so as to minimize the contribution of stochastic noise, while still maintaining photometric accuracy.
We achieve this by optimizing a transfer function that translates the digitized output signal levels from the L3CCD into a value approximating the photon input as closely as possible by applying thresholding techniques. We identify several thresholding strategies and quantify their impact on the photon counting accuracy and the effective signal-to-noise ratio.
We find that it is possible to eliminate the noise introduced by the gain process at the lowest light levels. Reduced improvements are achieved as the light level increases up to about 20 photon pixel⁻¹ and above this there is negligible improvement. Operating L3CCDs at very high speeds will keep the photon flux low, giving the best improvements in signal-to-noise ratio.