A NOTE ON THE USE OF A NOMOGRAM FOR SELF-POTENTIAL ANOMALIES*

A nomogram has been devised for situations, in which the source of a self-potential anomaly can be approximated by an obliquely polarized sphere or horizontal cylinder embedded in a homogeneous half space. The nomogram can be used for rapid determination of three parameters of the target: (1) depth to the centre, (2) angle between the axis of polarization and the horizontal, (3) shift of the point vertically above the centre of the body from zero potential value. The nomogram has been tested and the parameters determined for SP results obtained over ore bodies Weiss and Süleymanköy in the Ergani Copper district, Turkey. The curves computed for the estimated parameters match the field curves well.     

ON THE ORIGIN AND INTERPRETATION OF SELF-POTENTIAL ANOMALIES*

The renewed interest in the self-potential method of exploration for mineral deposits gives an understanding of the self-potential mechanism new importance. The cause of SP anomalies in general lies in the interference between simultaneously occurring nonequilibrium phenomena. However, theories of the mechanism of mineral SP anomalies generally relate the SP anomaly to the equilibrium potential of the chemical reaction supposed to occur on the ore body surface. In this paper, I reformulate these equilibrium mechanisms in terms of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. The result is that the SP anomaly depends not on the equilibrium potential alone, but also on the potential resulting from current transferred across the ore body—electrolyte interface. It is not possible to calculate the overpotential theoretically because of the number of complicating factors, and experimental data are not available. This does not imply that SP data are uninterpretable quantitatively. SP data may be interpreted similarly to other potential field data.     

THE USE OF FOURIER SERIES METHOD IN UPWARD CONTINUATION WITH NEW IMPROVEMENTS*

This paper shows how to reduce the errors near edges of potential field data that result from using Fourier series in the computation of upward continuation of potential field anomalies. This kind of error, if uncorrected, can lead to erroneous geological interpretation. The errors that occur at both edges of potential field data after upward continuation originate from the representation of data by using Fourier series from which data becomes periodic with discontinuities or sharp changes between each period. In order to reduce this type of error, we propose, either 1) to use only the cosine series, or 2) to add a certain number of constant data to both edges of the original data before continuation. Using these new schemes, we have demonstrated the improvement on the accuracy near edges of continued anomalies with profiles of magnetic anomaly computed from an assumed model.     

THE INFLUENCE OF OBLIQUELY DIPPING DISCONTINUITIES ON THE USE OF RAYLEIGH CHANNEL WAVES FOR THE IN-SEAM SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD *

The geological sequence rock-coal-rock represents a seismic low-velocity channel. Channel waves generated in a coal seam and their reflections from discontinuities can be used for proving the minability of the seam. To investigate the process of reflection, two-dimensional models of the sequence rock-coal-rock have been investigated by means of the ultrasonic transducer technique. Two-dimensional models have the advantage that the wave field can be observed at an arbitrarily chosen point of the model plate. Thus, by means of these models the direct and the reflected Rayleigh channel wave can be observed along their path of propagation. From the geophysical point of view the various types of discontinuities of a coal seam can be divided into two basic types: one is restricted to the seam, the other includes in addition a fractured zone in the adjoining rock. The investigation of the symmetrical Rayleigh channel wave reflected by a discontinuity yields the following results: For dip angles γ between approximately 90° and approximately 60° the reflectivity is virtually independent of the type of discontinuity. This does not hold for the limiting case of γ= 90° (vertical dip) for which the reflectivity increases with increasing influence of the fractured zone. For dip angles γ between approximately 60° and approximately 40° the reflectivity is still independent of the fractured zone but the shape of the reflected wave deteriorates with increasing influence of the fractured zone. For dip angles γ below approximately 40° the reflected wave deteriorates such that the application of the in-seam seismic reflection method will be difficult or even impossible. The conversion of the direct wave of the symmetrical fundamental mode into a reflected wave of the antisymmetrical fundamental mode has been observed.     

自然电场法勘探火山岩地区地下水的研究

多个火山岩地区找水的勘探实例表明,地表观测到的自然电位异常（简称SP）与地下非饱和区厚度相关。本文认为这种自然电位异常是由于雨水垂直向下流经非饱和区（渗流区）到达地下不透水界面引起,并提出产生自然电位异常的地下极化模型,进而根据静电场理论建立了水文地质模型与自电异常之间的理论关系。这一理论能够实现把一种波数域反演技术引进自然电位异常的反演,以便计算地下水的位置和深度。模型算例和勘探实例表明这一方法可以用于勘探火山岩地区地下水。     

THE USE OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS IN GRAVITY INTERPRETATION*

Computer-Graphics, the visual display of data in digital and analog form, allows immediate interaction between man and machine. This interaction facility is valuable when the user is engaged in model design. By using such a device in gravity interpretation, the geophysicist can overcome the slow process of model simulation constrained by the conventional input/output devices, also maximum control over running programmes can be exerted if needed.     

USE OF THE RESISTIVITY METHOD IN GEOLOGICAL MAPPING—CASE HISTORIES FROM RANIGANJ COALFIELD,INDIA*

The effectiveness of the electrical resistivity method has been studied using various configurations with different spacings over the Southern Boundary Fault in the northwestern part, and across a dolerite dyke named “Salma dyke” in the central part, of the Raniganj Coalfield, India. It has been observed that the delineation of the fault and the dyke was made possible under differential tropical weathering conditions. Geoelectric sections across the fault and the dyke have been prepared on the basis of Schlumberger sounding results. In profiling, Wenner, two-electrode, half-Schlumberger and part of Al-Chalabi's configurations were applied over the Southern Boundary Fault. Across the dyke, alpha-, beta-, and gamma-Wenner, Schlumberger, half-Schlumberger and two-electrode configurations were employed. Azi-muthal two-electrode sounding was also studied over the fault. The interpretation of the results of apparent resistivity profiles across the Southern Boundary Fault suggests that the Wenner and two-electrode configurations possess certain diagnostic features which help in mapping a single lithological contact, provided sufficient resistivity contrast exists. Although Schlumberger configuration seems to be quite suitable, other configurations may also be usefully employed over the dyke.     

AN EFFICIENT METHOD OF OPERATING THE AIR-GUN*

A new technique is developed for generating a short seismic pulse from the bubble pulses which are radiated by an air-gun. The new technique, which is useful in well velocity surveys and vertical seismic profiling, can be implemented by firing a single air-gun several times at the same depth but with different chamber pressures. A record obtained by this procedure from a well-geophone clamped at a depth of 2450 m gave a maximum peak-to-peak amplitude within the first 100 ms of the effective seismic pulse at least ten times any later peak-to-peak amplitude.     

REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC GRADIOMETER IN OIL EXPLORATION *

The principle of optical pumping allows the design of magnetometers with high sensitivity. When mapping the field of the total magnetic force, it is no longer possible to make full use of the accuracy of the instruments because the accuracy of the reduction of the diurnal variation is limited. By simultaneously recording with two instruments in different altitudes, the vertical gradient can be measured which doe's not depend on the time variation of the magnetic field. Therefore, the gradiometer seems to be a more adequate tool for oil exploration than the magnetometer. It is investigated in this article whether the results of this gradiometer or the measurements of the total magnetic field by the high sensitive magnetometer are more useful in oil exploration. The article comes to the conclusion that for most problems of oil exploration the total magnetic field is a more valuable unit than the vertical gradient measured directly by the gradiometer. The total magnetic field allows a better investigation of the tectonics than the vertical gradient. The apparent advantages of the gradiometer claimed by its supporters are mainly based on inconsistent mathematical concepts.     

THE USE OF A SQUARE CONFIGURATION IN RESISTIVITY PROSPECTING *

Consideration is given to the use of a configuration of four electrodes set in a square array for resistivity measurements. It is found that, by passing current successively between different pairs of electrodes, an apparent resistivity can be determined which is both more sensitive to the position of the array centre and less dependent on orientation than the measures usually obtained with colinear arrays of electrodes. At the same time the observations made enable the degree of the departure of local conditions from conditions of lateral homogeneity to be assessed. Theoretical and practical examples of the use of this electrode system are given and the use of the system both as a tool in mapping and in depth investigations is considered. It is shown that provided electrode spacings are suitably arranged the results of a probe carried out using the square array can be interpreted by conventional methods. The system is shown to have particular advantages in the investigation of lateral resistivity variations and the reduced dependence on orientation makes possible the recasting of interpretation data in an orientationally invariant form with a consequent drastic reduction in the number of type curves required for a particular problem.     

THE USE OF OBSERVATIONAL SPACE IN SEISMIC REFRACTION TECHNIQUES *

Attention is given in this paper to the display of intensive seismic refraction information in a convenient form similar to spatial display techniques being developed for resistivity methods. An observational space for first arrivals is defined and illustrated with respect to some simple structures and the possible use of such a representation in diagnosis is discussed. The spatial display is suitable both for steeply dipping and gently dipping structures. In the latter case, the low relief space may be subjected to further operations to produce apparent velocity distributions and values simply related to plus times. A practical example of the latter process and the subsequent interpretation is given.     

USE OF EXPECTED ERROR IN THE DESIGN OF LEAST-SQUARES OPTIMUM FILTERS*

The design of least-squares optimum filters is based upon minimizing a suitably defined error criterion. The expected value of this error is easily computable after the coefficients of the filter have been determined. When a particular filtering problem is specified, there are several parameters which are specifically not included in the optimization procedure. However, the magnitude of the expected error may be quite sensitive to these parameters. The examination of the relative values of the expected error for variations of these unspecified parameters may lead to a better definition of the filter problem. The parameters which are left unspecified by the general least-square filter definition include: 1. The addition of white noise to the signal autocorrelation to stabilize the filter behavior. 2. The specification of the shape of the desired output of the filter. 3. The specification of the lag between the desired output and the input. Examples are given showing the relationship between these parameters and the value of the expected error.     

ESTIMATION OF DEPTH TO CONDUCTORS BY THE USE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS*

The transient response of a layered structure to plane wave excitation can be considered to be composed of a series of waves and a ground wave. For the case of a half-space of conductivity σ and permeability μ the maximum in the electric field is found at a depth z and time t when t=z²σμ/2. This formula can be used to estimate the depth to a buried horizontal conductor with an accuracy that depends upon the resistive contrast at the conductor's surface. The above ray type of solution can be converted to a solution composed of a number of modes by the use of a Poisson transform and the transformed solutions yield decay constants that are consistent with the previously reported results. In the case of a finite source, the maximum in the electric field is strongly directed. The direction depends upon the geometry of the source and the air-earth interface. Although the maximum varies with direction it can be shown that in some directions similar laws to that above are valid. The depth to a conductor can be estimated from the early part of the transients when the ground wave is removed. The removal of the ground wave from the transient is facilitated by the use of an apparent conductivity formula. Although these results were obtained under restrictive conditions they do provide some insight into the electrical transients that are encountered by studying more complex models.     

各向异性水平岩层对自然电场电位曲线的影响

1) 引言现在自然电流法观察结果的解释,均假设矿体是处在均匀各向同性的介质中。实际上,围岩的不均匀和各向异性对电位曲线起着严重的崎变,因之,对结果的解释也应该作相应的校正。在这里,我们只研究最简单的均匀各向异性水平岩层对自然电场电位曲线的影响,井提出了用普通的方法从自然电位曲线上求矿体埋深时,应作的各向异性校正。     

各向异性水平岩层对自然电场电位曲线的影响

1) 引言现在自然电流法观察结果的解释,均假设矿体是处在均匀各向同性的介质中。实际上,围岩的不均匀和各向异性对电位曲线起着严重的崎变,因之,对结果的解释也应该作相应的校正。在这里,我们只研究最简单的均匀各向异性水平岩层对自然电场电位曲线的影响,井提出了用普通的方法从自然电位曲线上求矿体埋深时,应作的各向异性校正。     

THE USE OF THE CONTINUOUS SEISMIC PROFILER TO SOLVE HIDDEN LAYER PROBLEMS*

Integration of the continuous seismic reflection profiler with the marine refraction method on engineering surveys offers a solution to hidden layer problems, allowing both layer velocity and thickness to be computed.     

PROBLEMS IN THE USE OF GEOPHYSICAL INFORMATION WHEN INTERPRETING THE DATA OF SPACECRAFT OBSERVATIONS*

Observations made from space have become almost a standard method of geologic investigation. However, interpretation of space photographs is not always unambiguous. Particularly, the nature and spatial location of various objects photographed from space remain obscure. It is especially difficult to investigate territories where basement rocks are overlain by sedimentary cover. From the example of investigations carried out in the central part of the Russian Platform it is shown how separate lineaments and ovoids reflect the peculiar features of geologic, hydrogeologic and geophysical structure of the region. It has been established that—within the sedimentary cover—they correspond usually to zones of increased fissuredness and are associated with low-amplitude tectonic dislocations. The authors concentrate on the elucidation of the transfer of deep geologic information to the surface. The sedimentary cover is regarded as a communication channel which makes it possible to employ the concepts of information theory for assessing its “transparency”. The contrast due to heterogeneities of the sedimentary cover in space photographs and, consequently, the degree of their manifestation in geologic and physical fields, depends on the water content of the rocks composing the section. Along with hydrogeologic characteristics, geo-electric parameters, such as specific electric resistivity, longitudinal conductivity and transverse resistivity, can serve as criteria of the degree of rock moistening. When the location of lineaments does not coincide with the plane axes of geophysical anomalies, an inclination of the fault plane can be supposed. The angle of inclination is characterized by the deviation of the lineament from the axis of the anomaly. The data resulting from the investigation of selected standard structures were used to develop a classification based on the degree of their expression in hydrodynamic, geoelectric, gravitational, and magnetic fields and depending on the spatial position and peculiarities of geologic arrangement. For geophysical investigations of unknown structures detected by space observations, this classification can be used as the basis for solving inverse problems by the methods of mathematical statistics.     

THEORY FOR THE BIPOLE-DIPOLE METHOD OF RESISTIVITY SOUNDING*

A theory for the bipole-dipole method of resistivity sounding is developed. Bipole-dipole apparent resistivities are related to Schlumberger apparent resistivities at two spacings. The theory can also be used to compute exact dipole-dipole apparent resistivity curves providing an improvement over the existing techniques which involve far field approximations. A comparison of bipole-dipole and dipole-dipole systems reveals the similarity between the two. However, the resolution of the bipole-dipole system depends on the azimuth angle. The flexibility of the theoretical expressions lead to a generalized field scheme independent of the bipolar or dipolar nature of the current source.     

THE USE OF FILTERED BESSEL FUNCTIONS IN DIRECT INTERPRETATION OF GEOELECTRICAL SOUNDINGS *

We start from the Hankel transform of Stefanescu's integral written in the convolutionintegral form suggested by Ghosh (1971). In this way it is possible to obtain the kernel function by the linear electric filter theory. Ghosh worked out the sets of filter coefficients in frequency domain and showed the very low content of high frequencies of apparent resistivity curves. Vertical soundings in the field measure a series of apparent resistivity values at a constant increment Δx of the logarithm of electrode spacing. Without loss of information we obtain the filter coefficient series by digital convolution of the Bessel function of exponential argument with sine function of the appropriate argument. With a series of forty-one values we obtain the kernel functions from the resistivity curves to an accuracy of better than 0.5%. With the digital method it is possible to calculate easily the filter coefficients for any electrode arrangement and any cut-off frequency.     

确定岩石中先存应力状态的声发射法

对经过三向预加压的石灰岩试件所进行的试验研究表明,其声发射活动的特点与单向受力时的情况完全不同。此时,在一个试件的一次加载过程中会出现两次Kaiser效应,分别对应于载荷达到预加压时所施加的轴压与围压值之时。利用回归分析的方法来处理试验数据,可以使声发射活动对应力的响应关系用三条回归直线来近似。这三条直线的两个交点所对应的应力值,可以确定出预加压时岩石试件承受的应力状态