Dense Gas, Chemistry and Star Formation in Luminous Galaxies

The molecular phase of the ISM constitutes the main source of fuel for the activity in starburst and AGNs. The physical conditions and chemical constitution of the molecular gas will change with, and respond to, the evolution of the activity. This paper includes a short discussion of the ¹²CO/¹³CO 1–0 line intensity ratio as a diagnostic tool of the molecular gas properties of luminous galaxies – paired with examples of high-resolution studies of how the line ratio varies within galaxies. A possible connection between the OH megamasers and galaxies with unusually high ¹²CO/¹³CO 1–0 line intensity ratios are also briefly discussed.The relative intensities of the dense gas tracers HNC, HCN, HCO⁺ and CN are a result of both chemistry and starburst evolution. The discussion on the interpretation of HNC 1–0 emission includes the importance of ion-neutral chemistry in a luminous starburst region. Finally, simple cartoon ISM models and how they can be applied to LIRGs and ULIRGs, are presented.     

Chemical complexity in galaxies

ALMA will be able to detect a broad spectrum of molecular lines in galaxies. Current observations indicate that the molecular line emission from galaxies is remarkably variable, even on kpc scales. Imaging spectroscopy at resolutions of an arcsecond or better will reduce the chemical complexity by allowing regions of physical conditions to be defined and classified.     

Chemistry in luminous AGN and starburst galaxies

Molecular line emission is a useful tool for probing the highly obscured inner kpc of starburst galaxies and buried AGNs. Molecular line ratios serve as diagnostic tools of the physical conditions of the gas—but also of its chemical properties. Both provide important clues to the type and evolutionary stage of the nuclear activity. While CO emission remains the main tracer for molecular distribution and dynamics, molecules such as HCN, HNC, HCO⁺, CN and HC₃N are useful for probing the properties of the denser (n≳10⁴ cm⁻³), star-forming gas. Here I discuss current views on how line emission from these species can be interpreted in luminous galaxies. HNC, HCO⁺ and CN are all species that can be associated both with photon dominated regions (PDRs) in starbursts—as well as X-ray dominated regions (XDRs) associated with AGN activity. HC₃N line emission may identify galaxies where the starburst is in the early stage of its evolution.     

Dense molecular gas in a sample of LIRGs and ULIRGs: The low-redshift connection to the huge high-redshift starbursts and AGNs

The sample of nearby LIRGs and ULIRGs for which dense molecular gas tracers have been measured is building up, allowing for the study of the physical and chemical properties of the gas in the variety of objects in which the most intense star formation and/or AGN activity in the local universe is taking place. This characterisation is essential to understand the processes involved, discard others and help to interpret the powerful starbursts and AGNs at high redshift that are currently being discovered and that will routinely be mapped by ALMA. We have studied the properties of the dense molecular gas in a sample of 17 nearby LIRGs and ULIRGs through millimeter observations of several molecules (HCO⁺, HCN, CN, HNC and CS) that trace different physical and chemical conditions of the dense gas in these extreme objects. In this paper we present the results of our HCO⁺ and HCN observations. We conclude that the very large range of measured line luminosity ratios for these two molecules severely questions the use of a unique molecular tracer to derive the dense gas mass in these galaxies.     

Molecular line intensities as measures of cloud masses – I. Sensitivity of CO emissions to physical parameter variations

A reliable estimate of the molecular gas content in galaxies plays a crucial role in determining their dynamical and star-forming properties. However, H₂, the dominant molecular species, is difficult to observe directly, particularly in the regions where most molecular gas is thought to reside. Its mass is therefore commonly inferred by assuming a direct proportionality with the integrated intensity of the  ¹²CO( J = 1 → 0)  emission line, using a CO-to-H₂ conversion factor, X . Although a canonical value for X is used extensively in such estimates, there is increasing evidence, both theoretical and observational, that the conversion factor may vary by over an order of magnitude under conditions different from those of the local neighbourhood. In an effort to understand the influence of changing environmental conditions on the conversion factor, we derive theoretical estimates of X for a wide range of physical parameters using a photon-dominated region (PDR) time-dependent chemical model, benchmarking key results against those of an independent PDR code to ensure reliability. Based on these results, the sensitivity of the X factor to change in each physical parameter is interpreted in terms of the chemistry and physical processes within the cloud. In addition to confirming previous observationally derived trends, we find that the time-dependence of the chemistry, often neglected in such models, has a considerable influence on the value of the conversion factor.     

K-band imaging of strong Ca ii-absorber host galaxies at z∼1

We present K -band imaging of fields around 30 strong Ca  ii absorption-line systems, at  0.7 < z < 1.2  , three of which are confirmed damped Lyman α systems. A significant excess of galaxies is found within 6.0 arcsec (≃50 kpc) from the absorber line of sight. The excess galaxies are preferentially luminous compared to the population of field galaxies. A model in which field galaxies possess a luminosity-dependent cross-section for Ca  ii absorption of the form  ( L / L *)^0.7  reproduces the observations well. The luminosity-dependent cross-section for the Ca  ii absorbers appears to be significantly stronger than the established  ( L / L *)^0.4  dependence for Mg  ii absorbers. The associated galaxies lie at large physical distances from the Ca  ii -absorbing gas; we find a mean impact parameter of 24 kpc  ( H ₀= 70 km s⁻¹ Mpc⁻¹)  . Combined with the observed number density of Ca  ii absorbers the large physical separations result in an inferred filling factor of only ∼10 per cent. The physical origin of the strong Ca  ii absorption remains unclear, possible explanations vary from very extended discs of the luminous galaxies to associated dwarf galaxy neighbours, remnants of outflows from the luminous galaxies, or tidal debris from cannibalism of smaller galaxies.     

发射线星系[OⅡ]λ3727/Hα谱线流量比的研究

利用从斯隆数字巡天(Sloan Digital Sky Survey,简称SDSS)第4次释放的光谱数据中选取的10~5个发射线星系样本,研究了[O_Ⅱ]λ3727/Hα流量比与星系尘埃消光、气体电离态和金属丰度的关系.发现尘埃消光改正对[O_Ⅱ]λ3727/Hα谱线流量比影响显著,消光改正前、后的[O_Ⅱ]λ3727/Hα谱线流量比的中值分别为0.48和0.89;尘埃消光改正后,F([O_Ⅱ]λ3727)-F(Hα)的弥散显著减小.贫金属星系的[O_Ⅱ]λ3727/Hα谱线流量比随星系气体的电离度增高而减小,而富金属星系不存在这种关系.另外,[O_Ⅱ]λ3727/Hα流量比与星系金属丰度相关.当12+lg(O/H)8.5时,星系[O_Ⅱ]λ3727/Hα流量比随金属丰度增加而下降;12+lg(O/H)8.5的星系,谱线流量比与金属丰度正相关.最后,利用气体电离度参数和星系的金属丰度,给出了计算不同类型星系[O_Ⅱ]λ3727/Hα流量比的公式.LAMOST望远镜将观测到大量红移z0.4的星系光谱,利用该公式可以给出星系的[O_Ⅱ]λ3727/Hα流量比,从而可以利用[O_Ⅱ]λ3727谱线流量计算z0.4星系的恒星形成率.     

Modelling line profiles in infalling cores

Results are presented from a model of molecular line formation in collapsing star-forming cores. The study includes, for the first time, a self-consistent chemical and dynamical model which is then directly coupled to an appropriate radiative transfer model. The assumptions of chemical uniformity or simple monotonic variations within such cores are shown to be unacceptable. The results show that the abundance variations and the line profiles are highly sensitive to the assumed values of the free parameters in the chemical model. Extreme caution is therefore advised in the quantitative analysis of emission-line profiles from infall sources. The implied degeneracy can be overcome by multiple line-of-sight observations of many species and transitions.     

A comprehensive search for extragalactic 6.7-GHz methanol masers

We have used the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA) to search for 6.7-GHz methanol maser emission towards 87 galaxies. We chose the target sources using several criteria, including far-IR luminosities and the presence of known OH megamasers. In addition, we searched for methanol masers in the nearby starburst galaxy NGC 253, making a full spectral-line synthesis image. No emission was detected in any of the galaxies, with detection limits ranging from 25 to 75 mJy. This is surprising, given the close association of OH and methanol masers in Galactic star formation regions, and significantly constrains models of OH megamaser emission. This absence of maser emission may be a result of low methanol abundances in molecular clouds in starburst galaxies.     

The chemistry of transient dense cores

We investigate the chemistry of a transient density fluctuation, with properties similar to those of a dense core within a molecular cloud. We run a multipoint chemical code through a core's condensation from a diffuse medium to its eventual dispersion, over a period of ∼1 Myr. We find a significant enhancement of the chemical composition of the core material on its return to diffuse conditions, whilst the expansion of the core as it disperses moves this material out to large distances from the core centre. This process transports molecular species formed in the high-density regions out into the diffuse medium. Chemical enrichment of the cloud as a whole also occurs, as other cores of various sizes, life-spans and separations evolve throughout. Enrichment is strongly affected by freeze-out on to dust grains, which takes place in high-density, high visual extinction regions. As the core disperses after reaching its peak density and the visual extinction drops below a critical value, grain mantles are evaporated back into the gas phase, initiating more chemistry. The influence of the sizes, masses and cycle periods of cores will be large both for the level of chemical enrichment of a dark cloud and ultimately for the low-mass star formation rate. We also consider the case of a self-gravitating core, by holding its peak density conditions for a further 0.4 Myr. We find that the differences are generally small, and the resultant column densities do not provide definitive criteria for detection of this condition. However, increases in fractional abundances due to reinjection of mantle-borne species may provide a criterion for a negative detection.     

The expected detection of dust emission from high-redshift Lyman α galaxies

Recent results have shown that a substantial fraction of high-redshift Lyman α (Lyα) galaxies contain considerable amounts of dust. This implies that Lyα galaxies are not primordial, as has been thought in the past. However, this dust has not been directly detected in emission; rather it has been inferred based on extinction estimates from rest-frame ultraviolet (UV) and optical observations. This can be tricky, as both dust and old stars redden galactic spectra at the wavelengths used to infer dust. Measuring dust emission directly from these galaxies is thus a more accurate way to estimate the total dust mass, giving us real physical information on the stellar populations and interstellar medium enrichment. New generation instruments, such as the Atacama Large Millimeter Array and Sub-Millimeter Array, should be able to detect dust emission from some of these galaxies in the submillimeter. Using measurements of the UV spectral slopes, we derive far-infrared flux predictions for of a sample of  23 z ≥ 4  Lyα galaxies. We find that in only a few hours, we can detect dust emission from 39 ± 22 per cent of our Lyα galaxies. Comparing these results to those found from a sample of 21 Lyman break galaxies (LBGs), we find that LBGs are on average 60 per cent more likely to be detected than Lyα galaxies, implying that they are more dusty, and thus indicating an evolutionary difference between these objects. These observations will provide better constraints on dust in these galaxies than those derived from their UV and optical fluxes alone. Undeniable proof of dust in these galaxies could explain the larger than expected Lyα equivalent widths seen in many Lyα galaxies today.     

The opacity of spiral galaxy disks: IX. Dust and gas surface densities

Our aim is to explore the relation between gas, atomic and molecular, and dust in spiral galaxies. Gas surface densities are from atomic hydrogen and CO line emission maps. To estimate the dust content, we use the disk opacity as inferred from the number of distant galaxies identified in twelve HST/WFPC2 fields of ten nearby spiral galaxies. The observed number of distant galaxies is calibrated for source confusion and crowding with artificial galaxy counts and here we verify our results with sub‐mm surface brightnesses from archival Herschel ‐SPIRE data. We find that the opacity of the spiral disk does not correlate well with the surface density of atomic (H I) or molecular hydrogen (H₂) alone implying that dust is not only associated with the molecular clouds but also the diffuse atomic disk in these galaxies. Our result is a typical dust‐to‐gas ratio of 0.04, with some evidence that this ratio declines with galactocentric radius, consistent with recent Herschel results. We discuss the possible causes of this high dust‐to‐gas ratio; an over‐estimate of the dust surface‐density, an under‐estimate of the molecular hydrogen density from CO maps or a combination of both. We note that while our value of the mean dust‐to‐gas ratio is high, it is consistent with the metallicity at the measured radii if one assumes the Pilyugin & Thuan (2005) calibration of gas metallicity. (© 2013 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Hydrodynamical simulations of Galactic fountains – I. Evolution of single fountains

The ejection of the gas out of the disc in late-type galaxies is related to star formation and is due mainly to Type II supernovae. In this paper, we studied in detail the development of the Galactic fountains in order to understand their dynamical evolution and their influence on the redistribution of the freshly delivered metals over the disc. To this aim, we performed a number of 3D hydrodynamical radiative cooling simulations of the gas in the Milky Way where the whole Galaxy structure, the Galactic differential rotation and the supernova explosions generated by a single OB association are considered. A typical fountain powered by 100 Type II supernovae may eject material up to ∼2 kpc which than collapses back mostly in the form of dense, cold clouds and filaments. The majority of the gas lifted up by the fountains falls back on the disc remaining within a radial distance  Δ R = 0.5 kpc  from the place where the fountain originated. This localized circulation of disc gas does not influence the radial chemical gradients on large scale, as required by the chemical models of the Milky Way which reproduce the metallicity distribution without invoking large fluxes of metals. Simulations of multiple fountains fuelled by Type II supernovae of different OB associations will be presented in a companion paper.     

Origin of disc lopsidedness in the Eridanus group of galaxies

The H  i surface density maps for a sample of 18 galaxies in the Eridanus group are Fourier analysed. This analysis gives the radial variation of the lopsidedness in the H  i spatial distribution. The lopsidedness is quantified by the Fourier amplitude A ₁ of the m = 1 component normalized to the average value. It is also shown that in the radial region where the stellar disc and H  i overlap, their A ₁ coefficients are comparable. All the galaxies studied show significant lopsidedness in H  i . The mean value of A ₁ in the inner regions of the galaxies (1.5–2.5 scalelengths) is ≥ 0.2. This value of A ₁ is twice the average value seen in the field galaxies. Also, the lopsidedness is found to be smaller for late-type galaxies; this is opposite to the trend seen in the field galaxies. These two results indicate a different physical origin for disc lopsidedness in galaxies in a group environment compared to the field galaxies. Further, a large fraction (∼30 per cent) shows a higher degree of lopsidedness ( A ₁≥ 0.3). It is also seen that the disc lopsidedness increases with the radius as demonstrated in earlier studies, but over a radial range that is two times larger than done in the previous studies. The average lopsidedness of the halo potential is estimated to be ∼10 per cent, assuming that the lopsidedness in H  i disc is due to its response to the halo asymmetry.     

A search for molecular gas in restarting radio galaxies

Several radio galaxies are known that show radio morphological signatures that are best interpreted as restarting of nuclear activity after a period of quiescence. The conditions surrounding the phenomenon of nuclear recurrence are not understood. In this paper we have attempted to address this question by examining the nuclear fuelling characteristics in a sample of restarting radio galaxies. We have examined the detection rate for molecular gas in a representative sample of nine restarting radio galaxies, for seven of which we present new upper limits to the molecular gas mass derived from CO line observations we made with the IRAM 30-m telescope. We derive a low CO detection rate for the relatively young restarted radio galaxies suggesting that the cessation of the nuclear activity and its subsequent restarting may be a result of instabilities in the fuelling process rather than a case of depletion of fuel followed by a recent fuel acquisition. It appears that abundant molecular gas content at the level of few  10⁸–10⁹ M_⊙  does not necessarily accompany the nuclear restarting phenomenon. For comparison we also discuss the molecular gas properties of five normal giant radio galaxies, three of which we observed using Swedish-ESO Millimetre Telescope (SEST). Despite obvious signs of interactions and nuclear dust discs none of them has been found to host significant quantities of molecular gas.     

Millimetre/submillimetre-wave emission-line searches for high-redshift galaxies

The redshifted spectral line radiation emitted from both atomic fine-structure and molecular rotational transitions in the interstellar medium (ISM) of high-redshift galaxies can be detected in the centimetre, millimetre and submillimetre wavebands. Here we predict the counts of galaxies detectable in an array of molecular and atomic lines. This calculation requires a reasonable knowledge of both the surface density of these galaxies on the sky, and the physical conditions in their ISM. The surface density is constrained using the results of submillimetre-wave continuum surveys. Follow-up OVRO Millimeter Array observations of two of the galaxies detected in the dust continuum have provided direct measurements of CO rotational line emission at redshifts of 2.56 and 2.81. Based on these direct high-redshift observations and on models of the ISM that are constrained by observations of low-redshift ultraluminous infrared galaxies, we predict the surface density of line-emitting galaxies as a function of line flux density and observing frequency. We incorporate the sensitivities and mapping speeds of existing and future millimetre/submillimetre-wave telescopes and spectrographs, and so assess the prospects for blank-field surveys to detect this line emission from gas-rich high-redshift galaxies.     

Precision abundance analysis of bright H ii galaxies

We present high signal-to-noise ratio spectrophotometric observations of seven luminous H  ii galaxies. The observations have been made with the use of a double-arm spectrograph which provides spectra with a wide wavelength coverage, from 3400 to 10 400 Å free of second-order effects, of exactly the same region as that of a given galaxy. These observations are analysed applying a methodology designed to obtain accurate elemental abundances of oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, neon, argon and iron in the ionized gas. Four electron temperatures and one electron density are derived from the observed forbidden line ratios using the five-level atom approximation. For our best objects, errors of 1 per cent in t _e([O  iii ]), 3 per cent in t _e([O  ii ]) and 5 per cent in t _e([S  iii ]) are achieved with a resulting accuracy of 7 per cent in total oxygen abundances, O/H.
The ionization structure of the nebulae can be mapped by the theoretical oxygen and sulphur ionic ratios, on the one side, and the corresponding observed emission line ratios, on the other – the η and η' plots. The combination of both is shown to provide a means to test photoionization model sequences presently applied to derive elemental abundances in H  ii galaxies.     

The Gas to Dust Ratio in Three Star Forming Regionstwo

Gas to Dust Ratio (GDR) indicates the mass ratio of interstellar gas to dust. It is widely adopted that the GDR in our Galaxy is 100～150. We choose three typical star forming regions to study the GDR: the Orion molecular cloud — a massive star forming region, the Taurus molecular cloud — a low-mass star forming region, and the Polaris molecular cloud — a region with no or very few star formation activities. The mass of gas only takes account of the neutral gas, i.e. only the atomic and molecular hydrogen, because the amount of ionized gas is very small in a molecular cloud. The column density of atomic hydrogen is taken from the high-resolution and high-sensitivity all-sky survey EBHIS (Effelsberg-Bonn HI Survey). The CO J = 1 →0 line is used to trace the molecular hydrogen, since the spectral lines of molecular hydrogen which can be detected are rare. The intensity of CO J = 1 →0 line is taken from the Planck all-sky survey. The mass of dust is traced by the interstellar extinction based on the 2MASS (Two Micron All Sky Survey) photometric database in the direction of anti-Galactic center. Adopting a constant conversion coefficient from the integrated intensity of the CO line to the column density of molecular hydrogen, X_CO = 2.0 × 10²⁰ cm^?2 · (K · km/s)^?1, the gas to dust ratio N(H)/A_V is calculated, which is 25, 38, and 55 (in units of 10²⁰ cm^?2 · mag^?1) for the Orion, Taurus, and Polaris molecular clouds, respectively. These values are significantly higher than the previously obtained average value of the Galaxy. Adopting the WD01 interstellar dust model (when the V-band selective extinction ratio is R_V = 3.1), the derived GDRs are 160, 243, and 354 for the Orion, Taurus, and Polaris molecular clouds, respectively, which are apparently higher than 100～150, the commonly accepted GDR of the diffuse interstellar medium. The high N(H)/A_V values in the star forming regions may be explained by the growth of dust in the molecular clouds because of either the particle collision or accretion, which can lead to the reduction of extinction efficiency per unit mass in the V band, rather than the increase of the GDR itself.     

Probing the feeding and feedback of activity near and far

High-resolution CO maps are an essential tool to search for observational evidence of AGN fueling in galaxy nuclei. While their capabilities will be surpassed by ALMA, current mm-interferometers can already provide relevant information on scales which are critical for the process of angular momentum transfer in fueling the AGN. In this context we present the latest results issued from the NUclei of GAlaxies (NUGA) project, a high-resolution (0.5^′′–1^′′) CO survey of low luminosity AGNs conducted with the IRAM Plateau de Bure interferometer (PdBI). The use of more specific molecular tracers of dense gas can probe the feedback influence of activity on the chemistry and energy balance in the interstellar medium of nearby galaxies, a prerequisite to understanding how feedback operate at higher redshift galaxies. We discuss the results obtained in an ongoing study devoted to probe the feedback of activity from nearby Seyferts to high-redshift QSO.     

Distribution of the Molecular Gas Around SN 1572

The early-stage structure and evolution of a supernova remnant (SNR) depends largely on its ambient interstellar medium, so the interstellar medium becomes the valid probe for investigating the evolution of SNRs. We have observed the ¹²CO (J = 1 − 0) line emission around the remnant of SN 1572 with the 13.7m millimeter-wave telescope at the Qinghai Station of PMO, in order to investigate the distribution of the CO molecular gas around SN 1572 and provide some observational basis for studying the relationship of SN 1572 with its ambient molecular gas and the evolution of this SNR. The observed result indicates that the molecular gas in the velocity range of V_LSR = −69∼ −58 km/s is associated with SN 1572, and this velocity component comes from a large-scale molecular cloud. The molecular gas is distributed along the periphery of the radio shell, continually but not uniformly, and forms a semi-closed molecular shell around the SNR. The enhanced emission exists in its whole eastern half, especially the CO emission is strongest on the northeastern edge. At the emission peak position, the spectral line exhibits a broadened velocity feature (>5 km/s). Combining with available observations in the optical, infrared, X-ray and other wavebands, it is demonstrated that the fast shock wave and ejecta are expanding into the molecular gas on the northeastern edge, and interacting with the dense gas. This interaction will have an important influence on the future evolution of SN 1572.