基于LSTM的青藏高原冻土区典型小流域径流模拟及预测

冻土覆盖率高的小流域的径流形成受温度因素控制明显,普通水文模型不适用,而常规冻土水文模型因需要较多的气象观测要素而难以应用。考虑冻土流域产流机制,利用青藏高原腹地风火山小流域2017—2018年逐日降水、气温、径流观测数据,以降水、气温为输入,径流为输出,基于长短期记忆神经网络（LSTM）建立了适用于小流域尺度的冻土水文模型,并利用2019年观测数据进行验证。模型得益于LSTM特殊的细胞状态和门结构能够学习、反映活动层冻融过程和土壤含水量变化,具有一定的冻土水文学意义,能很好地模拟冻土区径流过程。模型训练期R²、NSE均为0.93,RMSE为0.63 m³·s^-1,验证期R²、NSE分别为0.81、0.77,RMSE为0.69 m³·s^-1。同时,为了验证模型可靠性,将模型应用于邻近的沱沱河流域,模型训练期（1990—2009年）R²、NSE均为0.73,验证期（2010—2019年）R²、NSE分别为0.66、0.64,模拟结果较好。考虑到未来气候变化,通过模型对风火山流域径流进行了预测：降水每增加10%,年径流增加约12%;气温每升高0.5 ℃,年径流增加约1%;春季融化期、秋季冻结期径流增幅明显,而由于蒸发加剧、活动层加深,径流在8月出现了减少。模型经训练后依靠降水、气温作为输入能较好地模拟、预测青藏高原冻土区小流域径流,为缺少土壤温度、水分等观测数据的冻土小流域径流研究提供了一种简单有效并具有一定物理意义的方法。     

概念性水文模型在出山径流预报中的应用

根据HBV水文模型的基本原理，建立了西北干旱区内陆河出山径流概念性水文模型。该模型反映了我国西部山区流域的径流形成特征，将山区流域划分为高山冰雪冻土带和山区植被带两个基本海拔景观带来对山区径流的形成和汇流过程进行模拟计算，以常规气象站的月气温和降水量为模型的初始输入，模拟计算月出山径流量。应用该模型对河西走廊黑河祁连山北坡的山区流域水量平衡进行了模拟计算，并对年径流和逐月分配进行了预报。结果表明，从枯水年到丰水年，降水量、蒸发量、径流量和径流系数均增加，而冰川融水和积雪融水对出山径流的补给比重则减少，这表明了冰雪融水对径流的具有调节作用。黑河山区流域径流系数远比干旱内流区的平均值大，但要小于全国的平均径流系数。所提出的内陆河山区流域出山径流的模拟和预报模型对年径流量和月分配的预报具有较好的精度，可用于黑河以及其他西北干旱区内陆河出山径流的预报，为内陆河流域中下游的水资源分配和开发利用提供依据。     

中国西部天山高山带冷生土壤及相关土壤的地貌发生学

The soil landscape relationship was investigated in the Upper Urumqi River Basin of the Tienshan Mountain Range, Xinjiang, China. Cryosols occurred in glaciated valleys and north-facing toeslopes at elevations above 3 000 m. Most cryosols developed in moraine are Aquiturbels. The microrelief is dominated by earth hummocks, thus the surface organic layers are either discontinuous or broken due to frost action. The Bg horizons are either gleyed or mottled and frost-churned organic matter is common in the lower Bg horizons. Stratified horizons and buried organic or A horizons are also common on gentle sloping or undulating moraines indicating the effects of gelifluction. Reticular structures formed in the lower active layers due to ice lens formation and freeze-thaw cycles. The active layer thickness ranges from 140～200 cm. The organic cryosols (Hemistels) occur in depressions and north-facing toeslopes with an active layer thickness ranging from 90～110 cm. Soils formed on south-facing slopes have a mollic epipedon 20～25 cm thick and a strong brown cambic horizon and are classified as Haplocryolls. The distribution of cryosols is smaller as compared with the extent of permafrost due to the depth requirement of permafrost in cryosol classification. However, the existence of permafrost at greater depth cannot be ignored in land use interpretations.     

青藏高原冻融荒漠化的若干问题——以藏西-藏北荒漠化区为例

冻融荒漠化是高海拔地区特有的土地退化过程,依据生态基准面理论将青藏高原冻融荒漠化划分为极重度、重度、中度和轻度4个等级.藏西-藏北区冻融荒漠化面积达44303.73km²,多呈斑块状零星分布和片状分散分布.高原冻土区具有冻融荒漠化形成的环境基质,近40a区域气候持续变暖,人为活动频率与强度加剧,鼠类活动猖獗,使浅层多年冻土的冻融过程加剧,从而形成冻融荒漠化土地.其形成过程主要有多年冻土季节融化层增厚-地下水位下降-地表土壤干燥化、地表覆盖改变或地下融水增加-冻土融冻界面热融-地表沉陷破碎、冻融作用过程和斜坡过程受到强化等.预测未来20~30a冻融荒漠化继续发展,程度加重.防治冻融荒漠化的对策主要是减轻草场压力、恢复草地植被,加强鼠害防治和合理布局开发工程、采用工程与生物措施等.     

基于模块化建模方法的寒区水文过程模拟——在中国西北寒区的应用

中国西北高山、 高原广泛分布着冻土和积雪, 春季融雪和冻土融化是该地区重要的水文过程.基于模块化的寒区水文建模环境CRHM, 根据流域水文过程特征和观测数据约束, 选取描述不同寒区子水文过程的模块构建寒区水文模型, 并基于长期观测的两个典型寒区小流域来验证模块化的寒区水文模型.在冰沟流域, 主要模拟雪的积累/消融、 雪的升华、 融雪下渗和融雪径流过程. 结果显示: 冰沟流域积雪升华占降雪量(145.5 cm)的48%, 其中风吹雪引起的升华损失量(35 cm)占积雪升华(69 cm)的一半, 风速和辐射引起的积雪升华是该地区积雪物质平衡的重要组成; 构建的寒区水文模型可以再现春季积雪消融引起的径流过程.在左冒孔冻土流域, 主要模拟冻土下渗过程、 冻土坡面产流过程和土壤冻融对径流的影响. 结果显示: 构建的寒区水文模型可以捕捉到春季主要的冻土融化径流过程.两个流域的验证结果揭示: 模块化的建模方法在搭建模型结构的时候减少了模型的不确定性, 所以在未经率定的情况下, 具有在无资料和资料缺少地区模拟寒区水文要素和水文过程的能力.     

冻结季沱沱河源多年冻土区活动层土壤水分含量分析

活动层含水量是表征多年冻土区气候、水文和生态过程的关键参数。长期以来,由于受多年冻土区活动层水分实测样点数量稀少的限制,各类基于遥感反演、模式模拟乃至数据融合和同化等手段生产的土壤水分空间数据均存在着较大的误差。2020年10—11月在青藏高原腹地（沱沱河源区）测定了 1 072组活动层土壤含水量数据并进行分析,探讨了该时段该区域活动层土壤水分的空间差异,并与全球陆面数据同化系统数据产品（GLDAS-Noah）和欧洲中期天气预报中心发布的第五代再分析资料（ERA5-Land）进行了对比分析。结果表明,在该区域平均厚度为2.72 m的活动层内,土壤质量含水量（总含水量）约为14.0%,活动层土壤含水量与植被发育情况存在正相关关系。除高寒沼泽草甸类型外,高寒草甸与高寒草原类型的活动层含水量随深度的增加呈现出先减小后增大的变化趋势。不同坡位类型的活动层含水量呈上坡位>下坡位>中坡位>平坡位,阳坡水分高于阴坡且两者活动层剖面水分变化相似。多年冻土区浅表层0~350 cm深度范围内的土壤含水量大于区内融区同深度的土壤含水量,两者土壤剖面水分分布均呈现出先增大后减小再增大的特征。该区域的GLDAS-Noah同化水分产品与实测数据对比的误差在10%以内,比ERA5-Land再分析土壤水分数据更为准确,但两种数据产品对土壤剖面上的水分垂直分布情况描述均与实测数据有较大差异。该研究结果可以为数据同化系统的模式冻融参数化方案优化及遥感水分产品研发提供科学依据。     

多年冻土地基正温输气管道地温场实测及分析

我国有多条油气管道位于多年冻土地区,工程问题层出不穷。因输送介质处于正温状态,其所释放热量对管道周围冻土冻融过程有极大影响。为阐明正温管道对多年冻土温度场及冻融特征的影响,基于西部某多年冻土区正温输气管道现场实验,对管道地基温度场进行了为期1年的现场实测。数据分析表明,多年冻土天然上限为1.5~2.0 m;土体融化期及冻结期分别为6-10月、11-次年5月;监测段多年冻土热量收支基本平衡,属于不稳定冻土,在外界热扰动下极易退化;正温输气管道的存在引起了多年冻土的退化且对其温度场有很大影响,水平方向影响范围约1.5 m,管下最大融深可达7.0 m。同时指出了针对处于临界状态的多年冻土,在基于对其全面、深入了解的基础上,越早考虑相关工程建设带来的热扰动对多年冻土的不利影响,则处置难度越低且损失越小。     

Evolution of the freeze-thaw cycles in the source region of the Yellow River under the influence of climate change and its hydrological effects

As an important water source and ecological barrier in the Yellow River Basin, the source region of the Yellow River (above the Huangheyan Hydrologic Station) presents a remarkable permafrost degradation trend due to climate change. Therefore, scientific understanding the effects of permafrost degradation on runoff variations is of great significance for the water resource and ecological protection in the Yellow River Basin. In this paper, we studied the mechanism and extent of the effect of degrading permafrost on surface flow in the source region of the Yellow River based on the monitoring data of temperature and moisture content of permafrost in 2013–2019 and the runoff data in 1960–2019. The following results have been found. From 2013 to 2019, the geotemperature of the monitoring sections at depths of 0–2.4 m increased by 0.16°C/a on average. With an increase in the thawing depth of the permafrost, the underground water storage space also increased, and the depth of water level above the frozen layer at the monitoring points decreased from above 1.2 m to 1.2–2 m. 64.7% of the average multiyear groundwater was recharged by runoff, in which meltwater from the permafrost accounted for 10.3%. Compared to 1960-1965, the runoff depth in the surface thawing period (from May to October) and the freezing period (from November to April) decreased by 1.5 mm and 1.2 mm, respectively during 1992–1997, accounting for 4.2% and 3.4% of the average annual runoff depth, respectively. Most specifically, the decrease in the runoff depth was primarily reflected in the decreased runoff from August to December. The permafrost degradation affects the runoff within a year by changing the runoff generation, concentration characteristics and the melt water quantity from permafrost, decreasing the runoff at the later stage of the permafrost thawing. However, the permafrost degradation has limited impacts on annual runoff and does not dominate the runoff changes in the source region of the Yellow River in the longterm.     

大兴安岭多年冻土泥炭地无机氮动态对秋季冻融的响应北大核心CSCD

大兴安岭多年冻土泥炭地是对全球变暖响应敏感的地区之一。在全球变暖、多年冻土退化背景下,为了探明秋季冻融对多年冻土泥炭地无机氮时空变化的影响,本研究于2019年9—11月以大兴安岭三种多年冻土泥炭地为研究对象进行野外原位实验,分析了秋季冻融前、中和后期多年冻土泥炭地浅层和深层土壤无机氮的时空变化特征以及浅层和深层土壤含水量和温度的变化规律,建立了土壤无机氮含量与土壤温度和含水量间的多元线性回归模型。研究表明:多年冻土小叶章泥炭地(XY)、兴安落叶松-泥炭藓泥炭地(XA)和白毛羊胡子苔草泥炭地(BM)的土壤铵态氮(NH_(4)^(+)-N)含量变化范围:(1.00±0.00)~(20.60±0.20)mg·kg^(-1),硝态氮(NO_(3)^(-)-N)含量的变化范围:(0.02±0.01)~(14.64±1.11)mg·kg^(-1),且无机氮以土壤NH_(4)^(+)-N为主;秋季冻融后期无机氮含量明显高于前期。尽管水热交互作用对该时期无机氮没有显著影响,但是在不同冻融阶段,无机氮对环境因子的响应程度存在差异:在秋季冻融前、中和后期浅层无机氮动态分别与浅层温度和含水量的变化相关,但在整个秋季冻融期间BM浅层无机氮含量仅对10~20 cm含水量存在响应(R^(2)=0.344,P<0.01)。研究表明,秋季冻融期内,多年冻土泥炭地无机氮发生初步累积,且浅层环境因子对无机氮响应程度最大。本研究可补充大兴安岭多年冻土泥炭地秋季冻融对土壤无机氮影响研究的相关数据,并为多年冻土泥炭地响应全球变暖的温室气体释放的研究提供基础数据支撑。     

内陆河高寒山区流域分布式水热耦合模型（Ⅰ）：模型原理

在全球变暖的背景下，我国多数大江大河源区存在冰川退缩、雪线上升以及多年冻土和季节冻土明显退化等现象，并由此造成河源区产流量减少以及生态环境恶化等诸多问题，这在内陆河山区流域体现的较为明显，但目前分布式水文模型中很少涉及冻土水热耦合问题。文章以黑河干流山区流域为例，构建了一个内陆河高寒山区流域分布式水热耦合模型（DWHC）。模型基于土壤水热连续性方程将流域产流、入渗和蒸散发过程融合起来，在植被截留、入渗、产流和蒸散发计算方面也有所改进和创新，部分模块具有多个可选择方案。模型设计了与中尺度大气模式MM5的嵌套接口，也可以用地面气象资料驱动。模型在1 km×1 km网格基础上，以日为时间步长，将流域土壤分为18类，土壤剖面分为3～5层不等，流域植被概化为9类。模型只需要土壤初始含水量、初始地温和常规气象资料，以及土壤和植被物理参数，就能够连续演算各层土壤的温度、液态含水量、固态含水量、感热传导、潜热变化、水势梯度、导水率以及水分入渗和毛细上升量等水文循环要素。主要介绍了模型的基本原理和构建思路，有关模型的地面资料驱动结果和与MM5嵌套结果部分，参见后续文章(Ⅱ)、(Ⅲ)。     

多年冻土区风火山流域降水河水稳定同位素特征分析

由于多年冻土区流域土壤冻融过程对水循环影响的复杂性,水循环物理过程观测存在困难和不足,而利用稳定同位素方法可以有效地解决该问题。因此,基于2009年长江源风火山流域夏季定点降水和河水δD和δ¹⁸O,对研究区降水河水稳定同位素特征进行分析。结果表明,研究区夏季降水δD和δ¹⁸O受到降水量和温度的双重影响,即受海洋性和大陆局地气团的交替影响。河水氢氧同位素的季节变化和空间差异与壤中流、地下水补给河流的季节差异和植被覆盖的空间差异有关。随着地温升高和土壤冻融锋面的迁移,河水补给来源和同位素特征发生改变,表明土壤冻融变化对多年冻土流域径流过程起到重要作用。此外,蒸发分馏作用是研究区河水同位素的重要影响因素。     

祁连山黑河干流山区水文模拟研究进展

流域水文模拟是在认识水文规律的基础上, 对流域水文过程的一种数学描述.黑河流域作为典型的内陆河流域历来是研究寒区、 旱区水文过程的热点区域.祁连山黑河干流山区的水文模拟研究也备受学者们的关注, 经验模型、 概念模型和分布式水文模型在该区域均有应用, 虽然都对出山径流做出了准确的模拟, 但是引进的模型对高寒山区水文过程的刻画不够详细.内陆河高寒山区流域的水文模拟要充分考虑冰川、 积雪、 冻土等因素所引起的特殊寒区水文过程, 准确刻画这些水文过程是高寒山区流域水文模拟成功的关键.今后应该继续加强野外观测, 深入开展冻土水文过程、 冰雪水文过程的模拟研究, 发展真正适合于高寒山区流域水文过程的分布式水文模型.     

Periglacial climate at the 2.5 Ma onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation inferred from the Whippoorwill Formation, northern Missouri, USA

The Whippoorwill Formation is a gleyed diamicton that is present locally within bedrock depressions beneath the oldest glacial till in northern Missouri, USA. Stratigraphy, paleomagnetism, and cosmogenic-nuclide burial ages show that it was deposited between the Matuyama-Gauss magnetostratigraphic boundary at 2.58 Ma and the first advance of the Laurentide ice sheet into Missouri at 2.47 ± 0.19 Ma. High cosmogenic-nuclide concentrations also show that the constituents of the Whippoorwill Formation experienced long exposure at a stable landscape surface with erosion rates of 1-2 m/Ma. However, cosmogenic-nuclide concentrations are invariant with depth below the Whippoorwill Formation surface, indicating active mixing of the soil profile shortly before burial by till. The Whippoorwill Formation retains numerous features indicative of cryoturbation. Therefore, we interpret it as a buried Gelisol, a soil formed under periglacial conditions in the presence of permafrost. At the onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation, climate cooling established permafrost conditions and accelerated erosion by inducing landscape instability. Thus, weathered regolith materials were mobilized and redeposited by gelifluction shortly before the ice sheet overrode the landscape.     

黑河源区高山草甸的冻土及水文过程初步研究

介绍了黑河源区野牛沟流域在试验点尺度和山坡尺度上所开展的冻土水文过程初步结果.冻土水文观测场建于最大冻结深度约为3.0 m的季节冻土区,近50 a来,该区降水量变化不大,器测蒸发量(Φ20)和风速呈明显的降低趋势,而气温和地表温度则分别上升约1.0℃和1.7℃.研究区季节冻土冻结上限和下限深度均与地表温度呈二次多项式关系,这表明地表温度与冻结或融化区地温变化之间有一个滞后过程.在地表融化季节,季节冻土存在两层现象.当融化深度接近最大冻结深度时,存在向上和向下的双向融化现象,但自下而上融化速率较慢.2005年9月-2006年9月,具有较高代表性的3个山坡径流场均没有观测到产流量,结合蒸散发观测和野外调查,发现夏季高山草甸具有明显的地表径流拦蓄和水源涵养作用.COUP模型能够较好的连续演算试验场生长季节高山草甸-季节冻土-大气-维水热传输和耦合过程,但因其土壤完全冻结临界温度阀值设置偏高,影响了非生长季节的计算精度.     

祁连山区黑河上游俄博岭多年冻土区活动层碳储量研究

为了探索在全球气候变化背景下多年冻土区碳储量现状, 通过野外实地勘探和室内实验, 对黑河上游俄博岭多年冻土区地貌特征及不同海拔活动层内的碳储量进行考察和估算. 结果表明: 黑河上游俄博岭冰缘现象显著, 土壤季节冻融过程活跃, 且活动层中碳储量丰富. 在研究区约2.5×10⁶ m² 的范围内, 活动层平均厚度约为1.1 m, 活动层土壤有机质平均含量约为72.1%, 碳储量估算约为1.57 Mt C. 活动层不同深度处有机质含量呈现不同的变化规律. 随着活动层深度增加, 土壤有机质的含量逐渐降低, 在多年冻土上限附近有机质含量较高. 另外, 活动层有机质含量随着海拔和土壤含水量的不同而变化, 同时多年冻土区微地形和地质条件也对有机质含量具有重要的影响.     

黑河流域陆地—大气相互作用研究的几点思考

陆地和大气之间是相互作用、相互影响的,不仅陆面分布与地表过程对大气变化有着响应过程,而且陆面物理过程、地表特征分布对大气过程也有着重要影响。我国西北地区地形分布极不均匀,是水资源变化和气候变化的敏感区与脆弱地区。这里,由于海拔高度起伏造就了以水为主线的上游山区冰雪、冻土—中游森林、绿洲—下游戈壁荒漠的多个自然景观带共存的内陆河流域,是开展陆—气相互作用研究的理想场所。文章集中黑河流域水循环过程、冰雪/冻土与大气相互作用、降水异质性、人类活动影响以及尺度等问题,阐述了流域研究现状以及研究热点,指出发挥各学科优势,将大尺度的大气过程与中间尺度和小尺度的陆面水文/生态过程结合,建立流域尺度大气—水文—生态过程真正的双向耦合模式,不仅研究气候变化对陆面水文、生态的影响,同时探讨陆面小尺度过程对大气的反馈机理,探索流域尺度的水循环过程和驱动机理,为水资源合理利用提供理论基础。     

土壤的冷生构造及其对阿拉斯加土地利用的意义

Cryogenic structure (patterns made by ice inclusions) in seasonally frozen and permafrost-af-fected soils result from ice formation during freezing. Analysis of cryogenic structures in soils is essential to our understanding of the cryogenic processes in soils and to formulating land use management interpretations. When soils freeze, the freezing front moves downward and attracts water moving upward resulting in mainly horizontal lenticular ice formation. Platy and lenticular soil structures form between ice lenses in upper active layer. The reticular soil structure usually forms above the permafrost table caused by freeze-back of the permafrost. The upward freeze-back resulted in platy soil structure and the volume changes following the annual freeze-thaw cycle resulted in vertical cracks. The combined result is an ice-net formation with mineral soils embedded in the ice net. The upper permafrost layer that used to be a part of the active layer has an ice content exceeding 50% due to repeated freeze-thaw cycles over time. The mineral soils appear in blocks embedded in an ice matrix. The permafrost layer that never experienced the freeze-thaw cycle often consists of alternate layers of thin ice lens and frozen soils with extreme hard consistence and has relatively lower ice content than the ice-rich layer of the upper permafrost. Ice contents and thaw settling potentials associated with each cryogenic structure should be considered in engineering and land use interpretations.     

Holocene permafrost history and cryostratigraphy in the High‐Arctic Adventdalen Valley,central Svalbard

This paper presents the history and cryostratigraphy of the upper permafrost in the High‐Arctic Adventdalen Valley, central Svalbard. Nineteen frozen sediment cores, up to 10.7 m long, obtained at five periglacial landforms, were analysed for cryostructures, ice, carbon and solute contents, and grain‐size distribution, and were ¹⁴C‐ and OSL‐dated. Spatial variability in ice and carbon contents is closely related to the sedimentary history and mode of permafrost aggradation. In the valley bottom, saline epigenetic permafrost with pore ice down to depths of 10.7 m depth formed in deltaic sediments since the mid‐Holocene; cryopegs were encountered below 6 m. In the top 1 to 5 m, syngenetic and quasi‐syngenetic permafrost with microlenticular, lenticular, suspended and organic‐matrix cryostructures developed due to loess and alluvial sedimentation since the colder late Holocene, which resulted in the burial of organic material. At the transition between deltaic sediments and loess, massive ice bodies occurred. A pingo developed where the deltaic sediments reached the surface. On hillslopes, suspended cryostructure on solifluction sheets indicates quasi‐syngenetic permafrost aggradation; lobes, in contrast, were ice‐poor. Suspended cryostructure in eluvial deposits reflects epigenetic or quasi‐syngenetic permafrost formation on a weathered bedrock plateau. Landform‐scale spatial variations in ground ice and carbon relate to variations in slope, sedimentation rate, moisture conditions and stratigraphy. Although the study reveals close links between Holocene landscape evolution and permafrost history, our results emphasize a large uncertainty in using terrain surface indicators to infer ground‐ice contents and upscale from core to landform scale in mountainous permafrost landscapes.     

南方小型岩溶流域与非岩溶流域的释水过程及径流组分差异

我国南方岩溶流域和非岩溶流域下垫面条件和含水介质结构的差异造成了不同的产汇流过程及机制,进而导致不同释水时段径流组分的开发利用价值不同。为深入理解岩溶流域的产汇流机制并探索岩溶流域的水资源评价方法,文章对鄂西庙沟岩溶流域和高家坪非岩溶流域共31次洪水过程进行了流量衰减分析,对比分析了两个流域的标准衰减方程、典型次降雨的释水过程以及不同洪峰流量下的径流组分差异。结果表明:岩溶流域的释水过程快于非岩溶流域,其衰减系数比非岩溶流域大40％;两个流域的河流基流均来自裂隙介质释水,裂隙介质为流域的主要储水空间,但非岩溶流域的裂隙介质比例比岩溶流域高8.8％;随洪峰流量增加,两个流域的地表径流占比均呈对数形式增大,地下径流占比均呈对数形式减小;岩溶流域径流组分随洪峰流量变化比非岩溶流域更为敏感,其地表径流占比变幅为4％~40％,而非岩溶流域则始终小于10％。文章定量评价了管道和裂隙介质在流域中的导水及储水功能,在进一步刻画岩溶流域产汇流过程及机制方面进行了有益的探索,研究结果可为岩溶山区水资源评价和流域水文模型的改进提供科学依据。     

Estimating potential direct runoff for ungauged urban watersheds based on RST and GIS

Estimating the potential direct runoff for urban watersheds is essential for flood risk mitigation and rainwater harvesting. Thus, this study aims to estimate the potential runoff depth based on the natural resources conservation service (NRCS) method and delineation of the watersheds in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. To accomplish this objective, the geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing technique (RST) data were integrated to save time and improve analysis accuracy. The employed data include the digital elevation model (DEM), soil map, geology map, satellite images, and daily precipitation records. Accordingly, the hydrologic soil groups (HSG), the land use/land cover (LULC), and curve number (CN) were determined for each watershed in the study area. The results of this analysis show that the study area can be delineated into 40 watersheds with a total area of 8500 km². Furthermore, the dominant HSG is group D, which represents about 71% of the total area. The LULC maps indicate four major land types in the entire study area: urban, barren land, agricultural land, and roads. The CN of the study area ranges from 64 to 98, while the weighted CN is 92 for the city. The rainfall-runoff analysis shows that the area has a high and very high daily runoff (35–50 and >?50 mm, respectively). Therefore, in this case, the runoff leads to flooding, especially in the urban area and agricultural lands.