Considerations regarding the definition of a geochemical baseline of elements in the surficial materials in areas differing in basic geology

The problem of a geochemical baseline in areas differing in basic geology was studied by comparing the results of regional geochemical mapping programmes undertaken in Finland and Lithuania using different sample media and a variety of analytical methods. The authors discuss issues relevant to the definition of a geochemical baseline.Most of the differences in geochemical baselines between Lithuania and Finland are due to the dissimilarities in basic geology, which in Lithuania is controlled by Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks, but in Finland by Archaean and Proterozoic metamorphic and intrusive rocks. Other important factors are the geological processes that after the last glaciation created the present surficial materials. In Finland, for instance, the abundances of potentially harmful elements derived from crystalline bedrock tend to be higher than in Lithuania. However, in both countries element concentrations are higher in finely-grained marine and lacustrine sediments than in glacial till, and they are also higher in the finer grain size fractions than in the coarser fractions of till samples. Only a small proportion of the total heavy metal concentrations is bioavailable. Thus the baseline concentrations depend not only on the basic geology, but also on sample material collected, its grain size and the extraction method.     

老挝表层沉积物69种元素地球化学背景值

老挝地质条件优越,资源潜力巨大.为响应国家“一带一路”倡议,在老挝全境开展1∶100万国家尺度地球化学填图工作.采集了大量地球化学数据,为研究区元素分散富集、矿产开发、环境保护、农业生产提供了高质量的基础地球化学数据.共采集地球化学样品2 079件,采用高精度分析技术及严格的质量控制,分析了69种元素.采用X±3S一次性剔除异点后数据集的中位值作为估值,首次给出了老挝全国69种元素地球化学背景值,填补了老挝国家尺度地球化学填图工作的空白.初步讨论了老挝全境、7个三级大地构造单元,6个三级成矿带69种元素的背景值特征.研究表明不同构造单元中受地质背景、构造及岩浆活动的影响,元素分布具有各自特征,同时不同成矿带受成矿作用及构造岩浆活动的影响,元素在各个成矿带分布特征不同,元素的富集对矿床有很好的指示意义.这些背景值的获得为下一步深入研究老挝地球化学填图数据提供了基础对比数据.     

Introducing a new approach of geochemical anomaly intensity index (GAII) for increasing the probability of exploration of shear zone gold mineralization

Increasing the prediction rate in the identification of mineralization zones using the stream sediment geochemical data is an essential issue in the regional exploration stage. The various univariate (such as fractal and probability plot (PP) methods) and multivariate methods (such as principal component analysis (PCA)) have been performed for interpreting the geochemical data and detecting the mineralization areas. In this study, a new geochemical criterion named geochemical anomaly intensity index (GAII) was proposed for geochemical anomaly mapping. This approach was developed based on the PCA method and the catchment basin coefficient (CBC). The GAII as a weighted geochemical index is calculated using the mineralization principal component (MPC) scores and CBC. GAII can be mapped and utilized for geochemical anomaly mapping and detecting the mineralization areas. Besides, GAII can identify paragenesis elements better than the current methods. In this research, GAII was successfully used to generate geochemical anomaly maps on shear zone gold mineralization in the southwest of Saqqez, NW Iran. The geochemical data have been divided into three groups based on catchment basins and the host rock type. Then the MPCs and paragenesis elements of Au mineralization have been obtained individually using PCA. Three mineralization paragenesis groups consisting of (Au, Sn), (Au, W), and (Au, As, Sb and Ba) have been recognized for different catchment basins of the southwest of Saqqez district using PCA. GAII was calculated and mapped based on the CBC_{(Au, Sn)}, CBC_{(Au, W)}, CBC_{(Au, As, Sb, Ba)}, and their MPC scores. GAII accurately detected the Au mineralization zones and improved the geochemical anomaly map in this area compared to the PP method, concentration-area fractal model, and U-spatial statistics method. The results demonstrated that GAII was successfully used for (a) identifying the mineralization paragenesis elements, (b) intensifying the geochemical anomaly, and (c) increasing the prediction rate of mineralization zones. The shear zone gold mineralization areas in the southwest of Saqqez district were effectively detected using this new data analysis approach. GAII has provided better results than the current PP method, concentration-area fractal model, and U-spatial statistics method.     

Element Geochemical Division of the Middle Segment of the Sanjiang（Three—River） Region

This paper describes the aim and principle of element geochemical division,the source of samples and data processing,the choice of divisional indices and the division of index value ranges.According to the geological structures and characteristic values(the accumulated value of enrichment coefficient)of the mantle-type elements(KT)this region can be divided into seven geochemical zones,i.e.,the Yangtze basement,the Yangtze cover,the Jinshajiang paleo-Tethys,the Lancangjiang paleo-Tethys,the Lanping Mesozoic basin,the Indosinian granite,and the Himalayan granite.Again in accordance with the different characteristic values of high field strength elements(HFSE)(KNb) or radiogenic elements(KTh)16 geochemical sub-zones can be divided.Meanwhile,this paper discusses the rules of variation in characteristic value of the various sub-zones and points out the characteristics of enrichment of oreforming elements in some of the sub-zones.     

The problem of defining geochemical baselines. A case study of selected elements and geological materials in Finland

Although the term ‘geochemical baseline’ appears in the international geochemical mapping programmes IGCP 259 and 360, it has never been well defined. Several considerations relevant to such a definition are discussed. A geochemical baseline for an element refers to its natural variations in concentration in the surficial environment. Geochemical baselines were studied in Finland by comparing results from regional geochemical mapping programmes based on samples of till, clay and organic stream sediment. The geochemical background changes regionally with the basic geology and locally with the type and genesis of the overburden. Baseline concentrations depend on sample material collected, grain size and extraction method. In Finland, concentrations of potentially harmful elements tend to be higher in fine-grained marine and lacustrine sediments than in glacial till. Concentrations are also systematically higher in the < 0.06 mm fraction than in the < 2 mm size fraction of till samples. Only small proportions of the total heavy metal concentrations in Finnish marine clays are bioavailable. Geochemical baselines are needed for environmental legislation and political decision-making, especially in the assessment of contaminated soil. In many areas of Finland, natural concentrations of several heavy metals exceed the guide or limit values designated for contaminated soils. Thus baselines must always be verified in any assessment of sites for contamination.     

Spatial variability of topsoil contamination with trace elements in preschools in Vilnius,Lithuania

An investigation of the spatial variability of topsoil contamination level was performed in 49 preschool playgrounds located in Vilnius city and correlated with urban (height and age of the preschools and height of surrounding buildings) and natural (altitude) factors. Composite samples, consisting of 20–30 sub-samples, were collected from 10 cm topsoil layer with a 3–5 m distance from each other. Sieved fraction (< 0.63 mm) was ashed at 400 °C, ground to < 1.0 μm and analysed for the real total concentrations of 22 trace elements (Ag, B, Ba, Co, Cr, Cu, Ga, Li, Mn, Mo, Nb, Ni, Pb, Sc, Sn, Sr, Ti, V, Y, Yb, Zn and Zr) using optical atomic emission spectrophotometry. Information on construction year and height (number of building stories) of preschool and surrounding buildings was acquired from the Centre of Registers of Lithuania. Out of 22 analysed elements, 13 to a greater extent exceeded the background values in several areas and were used to calculate the total contamination index (Z_s13). Out of 49 analysed areas, 21 had moderately hazardous to hazardous levels of contamination as indicated by Z_s13. The main contaminating elements, exceeding the permissible concentrations were Ag, Cu, Mo, Pb, Sn and Zn, the origins of which coincide with city industry and traffic. Topsoil around the newer preschool buildings, despite their location, contained lower concentrations of contaminants, while areas at higher altitudes were more contaminated than those located at lower altitudes. The latter causality is biased, as the city industry, and hence the highest contamination, is in districts located higher above sea level than the remaining studied sites.     

低密度地球化学填图在热带雨林区的适用性探索：以印度尼西亚苏门答腊岛巴东明古鲁地区为例

不同尺度地球化学填图能否获得稳定的和可追索的地球化学模式,能否真实反映元素含量背景,是检验填图方法是否可行的重要依据。笔者选择印度尼西亚苏门答腊岛巴东—明古鲁地区热带雨林区为研究对象,对比该区1:100 万（1 个样/100 km2）和1:25 万（1 个样/4 km2）两种不同比例尺的地球化学采样所获得的地球化学数据和异常分布模式,发现二者获得的元素含量背景值和中位数非常接近,所圈定的地球化学省在形态和变化趋势上非常类似,浓集中心的位置几乎完全重合,证明低密度地球化学填图也能获得稳定的和可追溯的地球化学模式,认为该方法在热带雨林区也是适用的。低密度地球化学填图圈出的地球化学省基本涵盖了研究区大的矿床和花岗岩体,真实的反映了研究区元素的分布情况,在这些地球化学省内开展更大比例尺的地球化学填图工作,能进一步圈定局部异常直接找矿,降低企业勘查投资风险。     

Spatial prediction and ordinary kriging

Suppose data {Z(s _i ):i=1, ..., n} are observed at spatial locations {s _i :i=1, ..., n}. From these data, an unknownZ(s ₀) is to be predicted at a known locations ₀c, or, ifZ(s₀) has a component of measurement error, then a smooth versionS(s ₀) should be predicted. This article considers the assumptions needed to carry out the spatial prediction using ordinary kriging, and looks at how nugget effect, range, and sill of the variogram affect the predictor. It is concluded that certain commonly held interpretations of these variogram parameters should be modified.This paper was presented at MGUS 87 Conference, Redwood City, California, 14 April 1987.     

岩石中元素背景值变化对地球化学成矿预测的影响

勘查地球化学是利用元素在各种介质中的含量变化来进行找矿勘查,因此,地球化学填图是勘查地球化学的最基础性的工作,正如地质图对于地质工作的重要性一样。在利用地球化学进行找矿预测过程中,元素在不同类型岩石中背景值的变化会对预测过程产生很大的影响,在利用中国西南地区76种元素编图的数据进行成矿预测过程中,将元素分成两类:一类是岩性变化对成矿预测影响较小的元素,这类元素的各类岩石最大背景值与预测区的异常下限比值小于1,且岩石中背景值的最大值与最小值比值也较小,一般小于4。这些元素包括Hg、Cd、Sb、Au、Sn、 Mo、Ag、U、Pb、Bi、W,它们都是地球化学方法应用最有效的矿种。另一类是岩性变化对成矿预测影响较大的元素, 这类元素有Pt、Co、Cr、Cu、Ni、V、Ti等,其岩石中的最大背景值与异常下限比值大于1,且岩石中的背景值最大值与最小值的比值大于8。以Sn和Cu两种元素为例,Sn属于岩性变化影响较小的元素,西南地区的Sn矿床与Sn地球化学异常之间的对应关系很好。而Cu属于岩性影响较大的元素,西南地区的Cu矿床分布与西南地区的巨大的 Cu地球化学异常对应关系较差。对于这组元素,应采用多重分形滤波技术,压制不同背景的干扰,从中提取出矿化信息。     

Environmental risk assessment of some potentially toxic elements in El-Tabbin region (Cairo, Egypt)

As much as 24 soil samples and 6 stream sediments from the River Nile were studied in El-Tabbin region (Great Cairo, Egypt). Twelve chemicals, potentially toxic elements posing potential environmental risk, were the object of concern in this study. Mean contents of analysed elements (in mg kg^?1) in soils and the River Nile stream sediments were the following: As_s 3.6/As_ss 1.5, Cd_s 0.33/Cd_ss 0.12, Cr_s 87.7/Cr_ss 141.5, Cu_s 40.3/Cu_ss 43.8, Hg_s 0.03/Hg_ss 0.13, Pb_s 33.3/Pb_ss 20.2, Zn_s 150/Zn_ss 109, Se_s 0.24/Se_ss 0.05, Ni_s 37.2/Ni_ss 48, Sb_s 1.25/Sb_ss 1, Ba_s 892/Ba_ss 431, V_s 103.3/V_ss 167.8. Furthermore, geochemical background values were derived for soil and stream sediment samples. The values are as follows (in mg kg^?1): As_s 1.33/As_ss 1, Cd_s 0.48/Cd_ss 0.05, Cr_s 54.7/Cr_ss 106.5, Cu_s 23.8/Cu_ss 23, Hg_s 0.025/Hg_ss 0.095, Pb_s 15.3/Pb_ss 13.5, Zn_s 70/Zn_ss 55, Se_s 0.13/Se_ss 0.05, Ni_s 19.5/Ni_ss 32.5, Sb_s 1/Sb_ss 1, Ba_s 266/Ba_ss 275, V_s 50.7/V_ss 119. More than two-thirds of soil and sediment samples exceeded established (based on literature data) risk limit values for non-polluted environment. Based on environmental risk assessment for potentially toxic elements in soils and sediments in more than 45% of total area disturbed environment (I _ER = 1–3) was documented and more than 13% of territory was characterised with highly disturbed environment (I _ER > 3).     

Practically Applicable Central Limit Theorem for Spatial Statistics

Let {Z(s):s∈D⊆ℝ ^d } be a zero mean stationary random field observed at a finite number of locations. Lahiri (Sankhya Ser. A 65:356–388, 2003) proved spatial central limit theorems (CLT) for ∑ _i=1 ⁿ Z(s _i ) assuming a ‘nearly infill domain sampling’. Applications of his results depended on the underlying spatial sampling region and the design in a complicated fashion. The main objective of this paper is to provide CLTs that could be applied easily in practice. We present two main results assuming a ‘nearly infill domain sampling’ defined mainly in terms of dependence. Theorem 1 establishes a CLT for ∑ _i=1 ⁿ Z(s _i ) and Theorem 2 is obtained mainly for applications to density estimates. We report on a simulation study for illustrating a way of applying our results in practice.     

Dust emission and transport in Mali, West Africa

Vertical dust fluxes were measured in the Inland Delta region of the Niger River, Mali, West Africa, during April-June, 1989 and 1990. Measurements of dust flux represent, for the most part, non-dust storm conditions or ‘dust haze’ periods. The observed concentration versus height relationships are similar to data presented by other investigators. The relationship between wind shear velocity (u_*, m s^?1) and vertical dust flux (F, μg m^?2 s^?1) can be described by a relationship in which F is proportional to u_*⁴. However, there is considerable scatter within the data set which is attributable to textural controls and surface conditions. The vertical dust fluxes measured in Mali are compared to dust fluxes measured in Texas, USA, and Yukon Territories, Canada. The significantly different values for the constant of proportionality (a) in the F α a u_*⁴ relationship for these geographically diverse areas is a function of surficial controls on the release of sediments to the air stream. Dust concentrations measured in Mali were found to be uniformly high and in general exceed WHO health standards for acceptable total suspended particulate loadings. As a result background dust may be considered a long term stress on health for the people of this region of Mali.     

西藏浪卡子县穷子地区土壤地球化学特征及找矿预测

在西藏浪卡子县穷子地区进行的1∶10 000土壤地球化学测量工作中,采用变化系数对测区10种微量元素进行地球化学统计分析,得知Au元素具有较大的成矿潜力;运用统计学软件SPSS19对10种元素含量值进行相关性分析、R型聚类分析和R型因子分析,划分出As-Au-Sb、Pb-Mo-Zn、Bi-Ag和Cu-W等4组元素组合;采用异常下限值圈定单元素异常和组合异常,结果显示As-Au-Sb组合异常和W元素异常强度较高,三级浓度分带清晰,浓集中心连续,具有较好的找矿前景;高品位Au矿化蚀变带的圈定,为下一步找矿工作提供了理论依据,显示出较好的找矿潜力。     

Assessment of pollution levels and human health risk of heavy metals in dust deposited on Yerevan’s tree leaves (Armenia)

The total concentrations of Cd, As, Pb, Cr, Ni, Co, Zn, Cu, Ag, Hg, and Mo were determined in the atmospheric dust of the city of Yerevan by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAnalyst PE 800). Heavy metal pollution levels were evaluated by calculating geo-accumulation (I _geo ) and summary pollution (Z_c) indices. Potential human health risk was assessed using the United States Environmental Protection agency’s human health risk assessment model. The results show that mean contents of all elements tested except Ni and Cr were substantially higher than local geochemical background values. According to the I _geo , Yerevan territory is strongly-to-extremely polluted by As, Ag, Hg, Mo, and Cd. The Z_c assessment indicated that very high pollution was detected in 36 % of samples, high in 32 %, average in 12 %, and low in 20 %. The health risk assessment revealed a non-carcinogenic risk (HI >1) for children at 13 samplings sites and for adults at one sampling site. For children the risk was due to elevated levels of Mo, Cd, Co, and As, while for adults, only Mo. Carcinogenic risk (>1:1,000,000) of As and Cr via ingestion pathway was observed in 25 and 14 samples, respectively. This study, therefore, is the base for further detailed investigations to organize problematic site remediation and risk reduction measures.     

大比例尺地球化学方法在地质填图中的应用

利用大比例尺区域化探资料中成矿元素铜、砷地球化学场的变化规律所反映的信息,在大兴安岭查巴奇浅覆盖区推断19条断裂构造带.将推断出的断裂构造带结合地球物理、遥感信息、地质填图等得到的断裂构造对比研究,结果显示：推断的断裂构造带多数与地球物理、遥感信息、地质填图等得到的断裂构造一致,多数地球化学场的分界线准确地反映了地层与侵入体的接触带,明显的地球化学高、低背景场分别对应着地层与侵入体.说明应用成矿元素地球化学信息进行地质单元推测、断裂构造推断等是有效的,可在浅覆盖区推广应用.同时,成矿元素地球化学图也存在一定的局限性,从推断结果看地球化学方法只能概略地推断地质体,实际工作中应注意与地质、地球物理、遥感等方法紧密结合,对地质填图单元进一步区分,以使提取的信息可靠性更强.     

遵义地区岩石及土壤环境元素分布和农业地质环境评述

本文利用1∶50000遵义市、遵义县两幅区域地质调查成果等资料,对该区地层岩石及其风化土壤中环境微量元素地球化学背景、各时代地层岩石及其风化土壤环境微量元素分布特征及地球化学异常作了分析总结.进而作出了该区岩石及土壤的环境微量元素质量评述.重点认为,微量元素在土壤中的含量分区与成土母岩地层的平面分布关系十分密切,地层及岩性因素是土壤中元素分布的主导因素,从而形成了自然的土壤地球化学分区;区内存在三类土壤元素地球化学异常：一是由某些地层岩石风化而成（主要类型）,二是由地质构造及热液蚀变导致（次要类型）, 三是由矿产开发等人类活动造成（应高度关注的类型）;应当辩证看待微量必需元素的高背景地层及地球化学异常层,通过合理利用它们来为人类服务.     

Defining trace-element alteration halos to skarn deposits hosted in heterogeneous carbonate rocks: Case study from the Cu–Zn Antamina skarn deposit,Peru

The presence of geochemical anomalies, defining haloes around hydrothermal ore deposits, can be used to vector towards mineralization, or identify ore bodies buried at depth. Several important types of ore deposits, including skarn deposits, are often hosted within carbonate-rich sedimentary rocks. Identifying anomalous trace-element concentrations in carbonate rocks is complicated by variable lithology (i.e. siliciclastic component) and volume loss during hydrothermal alteration. In this study of the world-class Antamina skarn deposit in Peru, we use the ratio of metals:immobile elements (e.g. La, Al₂O₃) to differentiate genuine and false geochemical anomalies in limestones and marbles surrounding the skarn deposit. Unaltered limestones are used to define threshold values for metal:immobile element ratios (through use of the median value ± 2 median absolute deviations). Genuine anomalies are identified when metal concentrations exceed those predicted using median + 2 median absolute deviations. In addition, comparison of “four acid” and lithium-borate fusion analytical techniques reveals that the lower cost four-acid techniques give reliable results. Our approach can be used to identify geochemical anomalies and halos related to hydrothermal alteration of carbonate-rich rocks, which have direct application to skarn deposits.     

Multidimensional statistical technique for detection of low contrast geochemical anomalies

In this article we propose an advanced technique for detecting low contrast geochemical anomalies using a set of features. There are three principal elements in this technique: (1) a statistical measure of the contrast of the anomaly, denoted as τ; (2) selection of a background population; and (3) reduction of the dimensionality of the feature space. In the frame of the model, which describes the statistical distribution of geochemical background as a multidimensional normal distribution of logarithms of concentrations, the index, τ, is a powerful test statistic for the hypothesis of abnormality of an observation. Maps of τ anomalies can be rigorously interpreted on the basis of statistical inferences. Under all equal conditions this technique allows the detection of geochemical anomalies with at least the same contrast (if the chemical elements in a background population are correlated, then even the better) as using selective extractions of metals from soil or other techniques for data processing. The advantages of the proposed technique are demonstrated both theoretically and on examples of rare-metal and copper–nickel mineral deposits.     

新疆西天山(南段)区域地球化学异常特征

西天山（南段）地区地处伊犁亚板块南缘活动带和塔里木板块边缘活动带内.向北突出呈弧形展布的近东西向主干断裂控制本区地层、岩浆岩及地球化学异常的分布.主体为志留、泥盆系富含碳质的碎屑岩-碳酸盐岩沉积.西天山（南段）主要成矿元素及其伴生元素集中在志留系、泥盆系和石炭系中,因而它们是研究区内最有潜力的找矿层位.志留系Au、As、Sb、Sn、Zn、Cr、Ni、Co、Ti富集,微量元素分布不均匀,元素组合多样,局部地段有富集成矿的趋势,地球化学图上有明显的Au、As、Sb、Hg、Cu的单元素异常或多元素的组合异常出现;泥盆系总体地球化学背景偏高,空间分布不均匀,元素组合复杂.富集元素有Au、As、Sb、Hg,有多元素的综合异常显示.根据区内元素异常分布、组合类型及控制异常分布的主要地质因素,将本区划分为4条综合异常带（9条亚带）.