Geostatistical integration of MT and borehole data for RMR evaluation

The geostatistical approach was applied to integrate MT (Magneto-telluric) resistivity data and borehole information for the spatial RMR (Rock Mass Rating) evaluation. Generally, resistivity of the subsurface is believed to be positively related to the RMR, thus the resistivity and borehole RMR information was combined in a geostatistical approach. To relate the two different sets of data, the MT resistivity data were used as secondary information and the RMR mean values were estimated at unsampled points by identification of the resistivity to the borehole data. Two types of approach are performed for the estimation of RMR mean values. Then the residuals of the RMR values around the borehole sites are geostatistically modeled to infer the spatial structure of difference between real RMR values and estimated mean values. Finally, this geostatistical estimation is added to the previous means. The result applied to a real situation shows prominent improvements to reflect the subsurface structure and spatial resolution of RMR information.     

A Combined Three-Dimensional Geological-Geostatistical-Numerical Model of Underground Excavations in Rock

Summary. This paper exploits geological and borehole geotechnical data obtained in the exploratory phase of a tunneling project to investigate in a first place if the kriging interpolation scheme may effectively reproduce the spatial variability of rock mass quality (Rock Mass Rating, RMR) in the vicinity of tunnels. For this purpose a quick solver in Fortran has been developed that performs variography analysis of 3D spatial data, fast kriging estimations of RMR between borehole sampling locations at the centroids of the elements of the numerical model, and model validation. For the purpose of an integrated underground excavation design, a step further is made by incorporating into the 3D mechanical numerical model of the rock mass, the three-dimensional (3D) solid geological model, thus coupling the geology with the ground (geotechnical) model (i.e. each element of the numerical model is assigned a geological material). The mechanical properties of each finite difference cell (or Representative Elementary Volume) of the ground model were then prescribed according to its geological type, the spatial heterogeneity of the rock mass expressed quantitatively with the kriging model, and the upscaling calculations of the mechanical properties of the intact rocks determined in the laboratory, based on the size-effect (strength dependence on size) and Damage Theory. Furthermore, a preliminary numerical simulation of the advance of unsupported tunnels in the model of the heterogeneous rock mass was performed for illustration purposes.     

Correlation of in situ modulus of deformation with degree of weathering, RMR and Q-system

Geotechnical investigation projects in Korea produced data on the in situ modulus of deformation of rock masses (E _M) measured with the borehole test, rock mass rating (RMR), and Q-system. The modulus of deformation of rock masses was correlated with the degree of weathering, RMR, and Q values. Determination of E _M for each degree of weathering allows for the results to be used to classify the degree of weathering or to predict E _M. The relation between E _M and RMR is represented by $ E_{\text{M}} = 10^{{\frac{{{\text{RMR}} - 16}}{50}}} $ , which returns values 2–3 times lower than those reported in previous studies. Despite scatter in the values, due to larger dataset used in this study, the proposed equation may be used to predict the in situ modulus of deformation from RMR values. In addition, the relation between modulus of deformation and Q values is $ E_{\text{M}} = 10^{{0.32{ \log }Q + 0.585}} $ .     

Comparison between ordinary kriging (OK) and inverse distance weighted (IDW) based on estimation error. Case study: Dardevey iron ore deposit,NE Iran

Estimation of mineral resources and reserves with low values of error is essential in mineral exploration. The aim of this study is to compare inverse distance weighted (IDW) and ordinary kriging (OK) methods based on error estimation in the Dardevey iron ore deposit, NE Iran. Anisotropic ellipsoid and variograms were calculated and generated for estimation of Fe distribution by both methods. Density, continuity of ore and waste, the number of points involved, and the discretization factor in the estimation of ore and waste boundaries were determined and the resource estimated by IDW and OK methods. Estimation errors were classified based on JORC standard, and both methods were compared due to distribution of error estimation. Results obtained by the study indicate that error estimation of OK method is less than IDW method and that the results of OK method are reliable.     

节理分布空间变异的地下洞室稳定性概率分析

以岩土材料力学参数空间变异性的"点估计-有限元"分析方法为基础,结合节理分析时自身存在几何模型、网格划分等特性,扩展了该方法在节理分布空间变异性分析方面的适用性,明确了具体的研究步骤与方法。以某抽水蓄能水电站为例,通过分析节理空间变异性对围岩变形与塑性区的影响,验证了扩展后该方法的准确性和合理性。对工程案例开挖揭露的1400余条节理进行概率统计,建立了节理空间变异性的有限元分析模型;采用扩展后的概率分析方法,研究了节理分布对地下洞室群围岩开挖稳定性的影响。研究结果表明:(1)对比概率分析得到的围岩变形概率分布与现场监测结果,发现剔除变形异常点后监测变形量值大部分位于得到的位移概率分布范围内,说明节理的空间变异性是导致监测变形波动的主要影响因素;(2)围岩变形概率分布的标准差能有效识别出围岩开挖变形受节理空间变异性的影响程度,对于所给出的案例依次为:机窝>边墙>顶拱;(3)围岩塑性区的概率分区能合理判断地下洞室群开挖时受节理影响较大的区域和范围,为工程施工的支护设计提供依据。     

Incorporation of principal component analysis,geostatistical interpolation approaches and frequency-space-based models for portraying the Cu-Au geochemical prospects in the Feizabad district,NW Iran

Delineation of mineralization-related geochemical anomalies of stream sediment data is an essential stage in regional geochemical exploration. In this study, principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to 12 selected elements to acquire a multi-element geochemical signature associated with Cu-Au mineralization in Feizabad district, NE Iran. The spatial distribution of enhanced multi-element geochemical signature of the second component (PC2) was modeled by different geostatistical procedures including variogram calculation, ordinary kriging (OK) and inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation techniques. Concentration-area (C-A) fractal and U-spatial statistics models were then applied to the continuous-value interpolated models for delineation of geochemical anomalies. Quantitative comparison of results based on the known mineral occurrences in the study area was carried out using normalized density index and success-rate curves. All generated models represent a high positive relation with known Cu (±Au) deposits in the study area, although, comparison of the results revealed that the OK-based U-spatial statistics model was superior to the rest of models. Besides, the low, moderate and high-intensity anomalies are spatially associated with geological-structural features in the study area.     

Improved RMR Rock Mass Classification Using Artificial Intelligence Algorithms

Rock mass classification systems such as rock mass rating (RMR) are very reliable means to provide information about the quality of rocks surrounding a structure as well as to propose suitable support systems for unstable regions. Many correlations have been proposed to relate measured quantities such as wave velocity to rock mass classification systems to limit the associated time and cost of conducting the sampling and mechanical tests conventionally used to calculate RMR values. However, these empirical correlations have been found to be unreliable, as they usually overestimate or underestimate the RMR value. The aim of this paper is to compare the results of RMR classification obtained from the use of empirical correlations versus machine-learning methodologies based on artificial intelligence algorithms. The proposed methods were verified based on two case studies located in northern Iran. Relevance vector regression (RVR) and support vector regression (SVR), as two robust machine-learning methodologies, were used to predict the RMR for tunnel host rocks. RMR values already obtained by sampling and site investigation at one tunnel were taken into account as the output of the artificial networks during training and testing phases. The results reveal that use of empirical correlations overestimates the predicted RMR values. RVR and SVR, however, showed more reliable results, and are therefore suggested for use in RMR classification for design purposes of rock structures.     

The application of rock mass classification systems to underground excavation in weak limestone, Atatürk dam, Turkey

The Atatürk dam was built across the Firat River on clayey limestone. A grout curtain, providing impermeability in the left and right abutments, was done in grouting galleries. The well known rock mass classification systems for tunneling purposes [rock structure rating (RSR), rock mass rating (RMR) and rock mass quality index (Q)] were used to classify the rock mass along these galleries. Based on RSR, RMR and Q values, the rock masses in the galleries have been classified into three different classes. Correlation between the three classification systems is discussed and suggestions are made for using rockbolt, shotcrete with wiremesh and steel ribs for supporting the rock mass.     

基于 DPM 系统的风化岩软弱区定位以及性质描述

风化岩体中存在软弱区,这些软弱区导致岩体的力学性能大幅度降低.现阶段往往采用地质钻孔取样对岩体中的软弱区进行定位以及性质分析.但是,由于造价以及工期方面的原因,地质钻孔数量非常有限,这些软弱区很难被有效定位,这在分析风化岩体的力学性能中造成了很大的隐患,成为边坡、基坑设计施工过程中岩体失稳的重要原因.本文介绍了一个风化...     

Engineering geological rock mass classification of Punasa tunnel site,Khandwa District,Madhya Pradesh

Systematic rock mass characterization is an integral part of rock engineering practices. In the present scenario several classifications are in used for rock mass characterization for tunnelling. The present paper discusses engineering geological investigations carried out for Punasa tunnel, a part of Narmada Sagar project. The horse shoe shaped tunnel is 3675.25 m long and 9 m in diameter. This straight and free flow tunnel has been constructed in basaltic lava flows erupted during Cretaceous to Eocene age, belonging to poor to fair rock mass rating (RMR) and extremely poor to good in tunnel quality (Q-system). The values of RMR and Q-system ranges from 29 to 74 and 0.0825 to 13.33 respectively.     

Modification of rock failure criteria considering the RMR caused by joints

The aim of this study is to present a modification of the failure criteria of rock masses, separately considering the effect that the Bieniawski’s rock mass rating (RMR) has due to joints, as well as the RMR linked to compressive strength of the mass rock. This modification can be applied to three of the already existing criteria: that of Bieniawski–Yudhbir–Kalamaras, that of Sheorey, and that of Hoek–Brown, comparatively analysing the effects of the three modifications that have been proposed. The new, modified criterion will be validated with new data obtained in a marble mine exploited by means of rooms and pillars. The values observed and measured in the mine are compared to those obtained through numerical modelling of the pillars, using the Análisis Lagrangiano de Medios Continuos, Lagrangian Analysis of Continuous Media (ALMEC) program. Finally, several conclusions related to the application of these rock failure criteria to the analysis of mining excavation of rooms and pillars will be proposed.     

高放废物处置北山预选区地表岩体结构与岩体质量相关性及其应用研究

岩体工程质量是影响高放废物地质处置（HLW）工程长期稳定性和安全性的关键因素,也是处置库场址比选的重要依据。在地表岩体节理调查统计的基础上,采用RMR(relative metabolic rate)分级方案,探讨北山高放废物处置预选区内以花岗岩为主体围岩的岩体质量与岩体结构的对应特征,建立结构面间距D与RMR岩体质量总评分值之间的定量关系,对北山预选区芨芨槽地表岩体质量分布进行研究。研究结果表明,RMR与D值的点群分布具有扇形发散的正相关特征,随D值的增大,RMR亦呈增长趋势,但低级序岩体结构与岩体质量比高级序岩体表现出更好的对应关系。研究认为,选用RMR与D的点群中心线对应的线性方程评价花岗岩候选区的岩体质量可达到快速评价岩体质量、查明各级岩体空间分布特征的目的,同时也便于对不同候选场区进行大范围岩体质量对比。分析结果显示,北山芨芨槽预选地段BS16钻孔周边3 km2范围内主要以Ⅰ、Ⅱ级岩体为主,岩体质量总体较好且分布相对较为均匀。     

Statistical analysis of some main geomechanical formulations evaluated with the Kaniadakis exponential law

The following paper reviews four well-known geomechanical equations, i.e. the elastic modulus of the rock mass as function of the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system, the relation between Rock Quality Designation (RQD) and spacing distribution of the natural discontinuities in the rock mass, the distribution of the discontinuity spacing along a straight line for a rock mass and the intact rock strength in function of the specimen diameter by using a power-law flat tails equation based on the theory of Kaniadakis. The results show that by using novel formulations, the experimental data are better approximated by the power-law flat tails statistical approach, which shows a trend similar to ordinary exponential for a certain part of the interval of variability of x; the tails, however, follow the power law for extreme values of x. It was, therefore, possible to obtain new formulations able to better represent some fundamental aspects of geomechanics.     

Stability analysis of rock slopes along Gangadarshan,Pauri, Garhwal,Uttarakhand

The rock mass rating (RMR) and slope mass rating (SMR) has been carried out to classify the slope in terms of slope instability. To understand the RMR and SMR various geostructural, geomorphologic and hydrological parameters of the slopes were measured and analyzed. 32 rock slopes/rock cum debris slopes were identified in the study area. The present RMR and SMR study is an outcome of extensive field study along a stretch of about 10 km on road leading from Srinagar to Pauriarea along Alaknanda valley. The technique followed incorporates the relation between discontinuities and slope along with rock mass rating (RMR) and slope mass rating (SMR). The analysis of the 32 studied slopes shows that in the Gangadarshan area out of six rock slope facets, two falls in class II (stable) and four in class IV (unstable). It is significant to note that the slope facets coming under class IV are comprised of active landslide portions. While the slopes under class II show minor failure or old landslide debris.     

Rock mass characterization for the underground cavern design of Khiritharn pumped storage scheme

A general approach to rock engineering designing aspects adopted at the Khiritharn Pumped Storage Scheme is described. The scheme involves excavation of three large caverns and tunnels in jointed sandstone within a suture zone in Southeast Thailand. Geological condition and engineering properties of the sandstone were investigated. Strength and modulus properties of the intact rock were determined from laboratory tests and properties of rock mass were empirically estimated for the design analysis in the de.nite study stage on the basis of three rock mass classi.cation systems namely the Rock Mass Rating (RMR), Geological Strength Index (GSI) and a Japanese system (EPDC). While the GSI gives strength and modulus of deformation values slightly higher than the RMR classi.cation, the EPDC gives a lower value of modulus of deformation but comparable rock mass strength value for the level of con.ning pressures at the depth of the cavern excavation. The results of stress analysis and loosening wedge analysis for the cavern excavations suggest favorable excavation condition.     

Strain-dependent Fluid Flow Defined Through Rock Mass Classification Schemes

Summary ?Strain-dependent hydraulic conductivities are uniquely defined by an environmental factor, representing applied normal and shear strains, combined with intrinsic material parameters representing mass and component deformation moduli, initial conductivities, and mass structure. The components representing mass moduli and structure are defined in terms of RQD (rock quality designation) and RMR (rock mass rating) to represent the response of a whole spectrum of rock masses, varying from highly fractured (crushed) rock to intact rock. These two empirical parameters determine the hydraulic response of a fractured medium to the induced-deformations. The constitutive relations are verified against available published data and applied to study one-dimensional, strain-dependent fluid flow. Analytical results indicate that both normal and shear strains exert a significant influence on the processes of fluid flow and that the magnitude of this influence is regulated by the values of RQD and RMR.     

Rock Mass Characterization and Support Assessment along Power Tunnel of Hydropower in Kohistan Area,KPK, Pakistan

This paper encompasses the engineering geological properties of rock mass along the power tunnel of hydropower in Kohistan, Khayber Pakhtun Khawa (KPK), Pakistan. The major geological units of the study area are Chilas complex (CC) and Gilgit complex (GC) that consists mostly of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Discontinuity surveys were conducted to classify the rock mass by utilizing rock mass rating (RMR) and tunneling quality index (Q) classification systems. RMR system involves collection of data for parameters of rock strength, RQD, spacing of discontinuities, condition of discontinuities, groundwater condition and Q system involves rock quality designation (RQD), joint roughness (J_r), joint sets (J_s), joint alteration (J_a), stress reduction factor (SRF) and joint water reduction (J_w). RMR values ranges from 46 to 66 (fair to good) for rock unit of Chilas complex (CC) and 50 to 58 (fair) for rock unit of Gilgit complex (GC). The evaluated values of tunnel quality by Q-system are 1.55 to 6.4 (poor to fair) for Chilas complex (CC) and 1.35 to 1.84 (poor) for Gilgit complex (GC). The required support along the tunnel route is also estimated by both classification systems. Unwedge program is used to analyze the unstable zones due to the intersection of different joint sets. Total 14 cases are analyzed in Unwedge from which 3 cases have failure potential with FOS less than 1. These failure potential blocks can become stable by applying further support of rock bolting and shotcrete layer.     

Deformation modulus of heavily jointed–sheared and blocky greywackes by pressuremeter tests: Numerical, experimental and empirical assessments

Deformability of rock masses influencing their behavior is an important geomechanical property for the design of rock structures. Due to the difficulties in determining the deformability of jointed rock masses at the laboratory-scale, various in-situ test methods such as pressuremeter, dilatometer, plate loading tests etc. have been developed. Although these techniques are currently the best and direct methods, they are time-consuming and expensive, and present operational difficulties. In addition, the influence of the test volume on deformation modulus depending on the method employed is also important. For these reasons empirical equations to indirectly estimate the deformation modulus have also been recommended by several investigators as an alternative approach. In this study; the geomechanical quality of weak, heavily jointed, sheared and/or blocky greywacke rock masses, on which very concentrated civil works are continuing at the southern and southwestern parts of Ankara (Turkey), was assessed. The deformation modulus was determined by pressuremeter tests, the possible effects of variables on the derived deformation modulus from the pressuremeter test were evaluated by numerical methods, and the comparisons between the deformation modulus of the greywackes obtained from the pressuremeter tests and their geomechanical quality (GSI and RMR) were made. Numerical simulations revealed that the presence of a disturbed annulus around the borehole causes underestimation of the deformation modulus, while the effect of length to diameter ratio of the pressuremeter probe on the deformation modulus is minor. Based on the geo-engineering characterization assessments, mainly two greywacke rock masses with different geomechanical qualities were identified. Geotechnical quality of one of these rock masses was verified by the back analysis of two slope failures. The empirical equations to indirectly estimate the deformation modulus of the greywackes using their GSI and RMR values yielded high coefficients of correlation.     

基于地质统计学的NDVI图像估值技术

将疏采样后的NDVI图像作为未受云层影响的已知数据,分别用普通克里格、泛克里格、指示克里格和序贯指示模拟对NDVI图像进行恢复并比较其效果。研究发现,各种克里格法对NDVI图像的估值效果由高到低依次为泛克里格、普通克里格、指示克里格,通常计算方便的普通克里格法就能够满足图像恢复所要求的精度;普通克里格方差和泛克里格方差只能反映数据的构型,不能很好地衡量估值图像的不确定性,指示克里格的条件方差的分布和实际误差的分布基本一致,能够较好地衡量估值图像的不确定性,并且其大小与NDVI影像数据的不确定性大小的分布一致。序贯指示模拟得到的多个等概率实现表现出很大的空间变异性,多个实现的均值图像光滑效应明显,估值精度不高,但是多个实现的方差分布可以很好地表征空间数据的不确定性分布。