Spatio-temporal patterns of agricultural expansion and its effect on watershed degradation: a case from the mountains of Nepal

Expansion of agricultural at the cost of forested land is a common cause of watershed degradation in the mountain zones of developing countries. Many studies have been conducted to demonstrate land use changes in such regions. However, current knowledge regarding the changes, driving forces and implications of such change within the context of watershed development is limited. This study analyses changes in spatial patterns of agricultural land use and their consequences for watershed degradation during the 1976–2000 period along an altitude gradient in a watershed in Nepal, by means of remote sensing, GIS and the universal soil loss equation. Estimated soil loss ranged from 589 to 620 t ha⁻¹ y⁻¹, while areas of extreme hazard severity (>100 t ha⁻¹) increased from 9 to 14.5% from 1990 to 2000. Spatial distribution of soil loss in 2000 was characterized by 88% of total soil losses being from upland agricultural areas. The study determined that without considering other forms of land degradation, only water erosion was responsible for erosion of a substantial area in a short timeframe. Areas under upland cultivation are in an extremely vulnerable state, with these areas potentially no longer cultivable within a period of 6 years. As sustainability of the watershed is dependent on forests, continued depletion of forest resources will result in poor economic returns from agriculture for local people, together with loss of ecosystem services. Thus, in order to achieve the goal of watershed development, remaining forest lands must be kept under strict protection.     

Environmental problems in the Sudetes, Poland

Due to the abundance of mineral deposits associated with the metamorphic rocks of the Sudetes, the area was intensively settled and developed by the end of the Middle Ages. Several centuries later, the first attempts were made to rehabilitate the devastated natural environment. The advent of capitalism brought further damage to the environment, which has remained almost unchanged to this day. Improvements in the context of transfrontier cooperation have arisen out of the economic crisis and the disintegration of the Soviet bloc. However, the Sudetes are still a problem area, and various industries are competing for local resources. The main problem facing the region is the need to rehabilitate its natural environment and create a more balanced local economy. Tourism, forestry, agriculture and ‘clean’ industrial technologies have the greatest potential. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Environmental protection in the Apuseni Mountains: The role of Environmental Non-Governmental Organisations (ENGOs)

The Apuseni Mountains constitute one of the most interesting parts of the Carpathians in terms of landscape, biodiversity and culture. Yet dislocations are now severe and there are development threats which also require a significant response. On the one hand there are some severe pollution problems associated with mining areas developed in the communist period which require remedial action and the cases of Roşia Montana and Zlatna are discussed. On the other hand, there are forest and pasture zones – especially the Padiş Plateau – which are coming under heavy pressure from farmers seeking to enhance their incomes following the decline of mining and manufacturing which has left many households without salaries. At the same time, tourist pressure is growing. Actions are already being taken to limit pollution damage and develop sustainable landuse practices. There is a national park project linked with nature reserves comprising picturesque landscapes, a rare flora and fauna and distinct geological and palaeotological formations (including fossil ice). There are major tourist attractions and with proper management they could become part of a development programme of the countryside. However it is essential that all stakeholders adopt sustainable practices and this means that official programmes – including the future national park authority administration's work in environment protection and tourism management – are backed up by Environmental Non-Governmental Organisations (ENGOs). The paper reviews their diverse activities and concludes that they are making a very substantial contribution in ensuring that the potentials of isolated regions can be utilised in a manner consistent with nature conservation. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Approaches to sustainable forestry in the Piatra Craiului National Park

Declared in 1990, the Piatra Craiului is one of Romania's 15 national parks and biosphere reserves. It has exceptional scenic and biodiversity value but is under threat from unsustainable agricultural, forestry and tourism management. The paper examines these threats in a historical context, regarding both the growth of the town of Braşov and areas of dispersed rural settlement on the mountain edge, and argues that a sustainable future will require negotiation between the park authorities and all stakeholders, including the local communities and private woodland owners who have benefited or will benefit from restitution. The way forward is explored with forest management in a central role. First, the certification of woodlands, along with the establishment of forest user groups and community woodlands, should help to reconcile the conflicting interests in the woodlands and in wood processing in support of sustainability. Second, the overgrazing of the meadows which is degrading the pastures, restricting forest regeneration and conflicting with large carnivore conservation, could be moderated by the growth of ecotourism linked with bears and wolves which would generate a new source of income to compensate farmers for reducing their flocks – given the importance of the biodiversity resources and the socio-economic pressures – and the paper therefore considers how new approaches to forest management might provide a basis for conservation and sustainable development. It will be for the recently-established national park management system – developed with World Bank Global Environment Facility funding – to take these ideas forward in due course. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Rural diversification and socio-economic transformation in Croatia

Rural diversification in Croatia is well advanced because many rural families have been able to find work in secondary and tertiary activities without the need to migrate to the towns. Many rural settlements have now attained an urban character although there are regional variations, including a contrast between the continental zone with a relatively high level of commitment to agriculture and the coastal areas, with pronounced ‘deagrarisation’ where the ports and tourist resorts are well developed and the natural resource conditions for agriculture are poor. These variations are examined at the municipality level with reference to two key indicators: the share of nonagricultural population and the share of workers in the total active population. Four categories of socio-economic transformation are recognised: more urbanised, urbanised, less urbanised and rural. The main regional differences between the continental and coastal areas are confirmed with the latter showing a relatively high level of socio-economic transformation through the prominence of more highly urbanised municipalities. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

乌蒙山区生物资源持续历史的启示与保护发展的方向

乌蒙山区属古热带北缘,是海陆变迁的海岸线,生物演化至今,造就了丰富的生物资源。人类活动以来,历经了自取自用-半农耕-坝区开发-山区开发的历史时期。由于该区是多民族居住区,又处于国家统一、巩固西南边疆、通向边区的交通要道上,较先进的中原农耕方式最先在此试用。明、清两个朝代的移民与经营,全面开始了生物资源的利用。历代各族人民在适应生存的实践中,找到了持续稳定地增长和利用生物资源的方法。这些,既充满了对自然规律的认识和利用,也为进一步发展提供了技术支持。该区在长江和珠江上游的分水岭上,只有以生态建设为基础,施行保护优先于开发的持续生物资源利用,才能发挥持续性和获得最大效益。概述了上述问题,在生物资源可持续经营上,简要提出了需要研究的基础科学问题和培育新产业的几个方向,并探讨了适应今后持续发展的管理问题。     

Mountain hazards and the resilience of social–ecological systems: lessons learned in India and Canada

Mountain regions are subject to a variety of hazardous processes. Earthquakes, landslides, snow avalanches, floods, debris flows, epidemics and fires, among other processes, have caused injury, death, damage and destruction. They also face challenges from increased populations, and expansion and intensification of␣activities, land uses and infrastructure. The combination of a dynamic bio- geophysical environment and intensified human use has increased the vulnerability of mountain social–ecological systems to risk from hazards. The ability of social–ecological systems to build resilience in the context of hazards is an important factor in their long-term sustainability. The role of resilience building in understanding the impact of hazards in mountain areas is examined and illustrated, in part, through examples from Canada and India. Resilient social–ecological systems have the ability to learn and adjust, use all forms of knowledge, to self-organize and to develop positive institutional linkages with other social–ecological systems in the face of hazards. The analysis suggests that traditional social–ecological systems built resilience through avoidance, which was effective for localized hazards. The more recent development and implementation of cross-scale institutional linkages is shown to be a particularly effective means of resilience building in mountain social–ecological systems in the face of all hazards.     

Precambrian crustal contribution to the Variscan accretionary prism of the Kaczawa Mountains (Sudetes,SW Poland): evidence from SHRIMP dating of detrital zircons

SHRIMP dating of detrital zircons from sandstones of the Gackowa Formation (Kaczawa Complex, Sudetes, SW Poland) indicates input from late (550–750 Ma) and early Proterozoic to Archaean sources (∼2.0–3.4 Ga, the latter being the oldest recorded age from the Sudetic region). These dates preclude within-terrane derivation from seemingly correlatory acid volcanic rocks of early Palaeozoic age. Rather, they indicate provenance from Cadomian and older rocks that currently form part of other, geographically distant terranes; the most likely source identified to date is the Lusatian Block in the Saxothuringian Zone. Hence, the Gackowa Formation may be late Proterozoic rather than early Palaeozoic in depositional age, possibly coeval with the late Proterozoic (pre-Cadomian) greywackes of Lusatia, being subsequently tectonically interleaved with early Palaeozoic volcanic rocks into the Kaczawa accretionary prism during the Variscan orogeny. However, correlation with the lithologically similar early Ordovician Dubrau Quartzite of Saxothuringia, and so assignation to the early Paleozoic (post-Cadomian) rift succession deposited at the northern margin of Gondwana, cannot yet be precluded.     

Hydrogeology and sustainable agriculture

 The world's population continues to grow and to require more and more food. Attempts by modern high output agriculture to meet this need have led to serious environmental problems. A more sustainable balance is now required and is being sought in a variety of ways. Hydrogeologists should continue to highlight the threat posed by agriculture to groundwater, particularly since groundwater is a hidden resource and its degradation and rehabilitation often take place slowly. But the time has come for groundwater specialists to go further and become actively involved in helping to provide practical and sustainable solutions. The agriculture of the future requires a holistic approach which balances the essential economics of food production with equally valid environmental needs, including those of groundwater. Such an approach demands cross-sectoral collaboration involving multidisciplinary research and action within an integrated policy framework. This paper reviews the current groundwater/agriculture interface and some of the attempts being made to achieve a more truly sustainable agriculture with particular emphasis on European experience. It aims to stimulate greater interest and involvement by hydrogeologists in helping to bring about realistic solutions that will enable future generations to enjoy adequate good quality food and water. Received: 9 August 1996 / Accepted: 11 November 1996     

西南岩溶区生态环境可持续发展的生态足迹分析——以广西为例

生态足迹是一种度量可持续发展程度的方法,能定量判断一个区域生态环境的发展是否处于生态承载能力的范围内.以西南岩溶地广西为例,采用生态足迹的理论和方法对2004年广西区域生态足迹状况进行了测算和实证分析,并与2003年进行了比较.结果表明:广西人均生态足迹由2003年的1.1378 hm2上升到2004年的1.2239 hm2;人均生态承载力由2003年的0.5753 hm2下降到2004年的0.5736 hm2,广西经济社会活动对生态环境的需求强度已经超过了生态承载力的供给;人均生态赤字由2003年的0.5625 hm2增长到2004年的0.6503 hm2,处于不可持续的发展状态.必须采取相应措施,促使广西生态环境发展向良性和可持续方向转化.     

The characteristics of water resources and the changes of the hydrological process and environment in the arid zone of northwest China

 Water resources in the arid zones of northwest China mainly come from mountain areas and then flow to and disappear in the piedmont plains. These water resources, with inland river basins as the geographic unit, form relatively independent ecosystems and the surface runoff flowing out of the mountain mouth becomes the only water source available for the middle and lower reaches of these basins. Both the ecosystem stability and sustainable development depend on the surface water and groundwater resources of these inland river basins. Over the last 50 years, exploitation of water and land resources in the arid northwest regions of China has been expanding, forming 390.07×10⁴ ha of irrigation oases, with construction of 622 reservoirs of different sizes with a total storage capacity of 65.5×10⁸ m³ ensuring the sustainable development of industrial and agricultural production. In the meantime it has also caused a series of environmental changes. Discharge of the majority of rivers has been drastically reduced (even dried up), river courses have been shortened, and terminal lakes contracted or dried up. Land desertification and soil salinization has developed rapidly. Vegetation is degrading and biodiversity is decreasing, as compared with the early 1950s; the natural grassland area is decreasing by 16–75.4%. Economical and high-effective use of water resources and harmonization of eco-environment benefits with economic benefits are the fundamental ways to achieve sustainable development of arid northwest China. Received: 20 January 1999 · Accepted: 4 May 1999     

Crustal shortening in convergent orogens: Insights from global positioning system (GPS) measurements in northeast India

Deformation in active mountain belts like the Himalaya is manifested over several spatial and temporal scales and collation of information across these scales is crucial to an integrated understanding of the overall deformation process in mountain belts. Computation and integration of geological shortening rates from retrodeformable balanced cross-sections and present-day convergent rates from deforming mountain belts is one way of integrating information across time-scales. The results from GPS measurements carried out in NE India indicate that about 15–20 mm/yr of convergence is being accommodated there. Balanced-cross sections from the NE Himalaya indicate about 350–500 km of shortening south of the South Tibet Detachment (STD). Geothermobarometry suggest that the rocks south of the STD deformed under peak metamorphic conditions at ∼ 22 Ma. This indicates a geological convergence rate of ∼ 16–22 mm/yr which appears to be fairly consistent with the GPS derived convergence rates. Approximately 1.5 to 3.5 mm/yr (∼ 10–20 %) of the total N-S of the present-day convergence in the NE Himalaya is accommodated in the Shillong Plateau. In addition, ∼ 8–9 mm/yr of E-W convergence is observed in the eastern and central parts of the Shillong Plateau relative to the Indo-Burman fold-thrust belt. Balanced cross-sections in the Indo-Burman wedge together with higher resolution GPS measurements are required in the future to build on the first-order results presented here.     

Evaluation of groundwater quality in coastal areas: implications for sustainable agriculture

Seawater intrusion is a problem in the coastal areas of Korea. Most productive agricultural fields are in the western and southern coastal areas of the country where irrigation predominantly relies on groundwater. Seawater intrusion has affected agricultural productivity. To evaluate progressive encroachment of saline water, the Korean government established a seawater intrusion monitoring well network, especially in the western and southern part of the peninsula. Automatic water levels and EC monitoring and periodic chemical analysis of groundwater help track salinization. Salinization of fresh groundwater is highly associated with groundwater withdrawal. A large proportion of the groundwaters are classified as Na–Cl and Ca–Cl types. The Na–Cl types represent effects of seawater intrusion. The highest EC level was over 1.6 km inland and high Cl values were observed up to 1.2 km inland. Lower ratios of Na/Cl and SO₄/Cl than seawater values indicate the seawater encroachment. A linear relation between Na and Cl represents simple mixing of the fresh groundwater with the seawater. The saline Na–Cl typed groundwaters showed Br/Cl ratios similar to or less than seawater values. The Ca–HCO₃ type groundwaters had the highest Br/Cl ratios. Substantial proportions of the groundwaters showed potential for salinity and should be better managed for sustainable agriculture.     

Mountain range specific analog weather forecast model for northwest Himalaya in India

Mountain range specific analog weather forecast model is developed utilizing surface weather observations of reference stations in each mountain range in northwest Himalaya (NW-Himalaya). The model searches past similar cases from historical dataset of reference observatory in each mountain range based on current situation. The searched past similar cases of each mountain range are used to draw weather forecast for that mountain range in operational weather forecasting mode, three days in advance. The developed analog weather forecast model is tested with the independent dataset of more than 717 days (542 days for Pir Panjal range in HP) of the past 4 winters (2003–2004 to 2006–2007). Independent test results are reasonably good and suggest that there is some possibility of forecasting weather in operational weather forecasting mode employing analog method over different mountain ranges in NW-Himalaya. Significant difference in overall accuracy of the model is found for prediction of snow day and no-snow day over different mountain ranges, when weather is predicted under snow day and no-snow day weather forecast categories respectively. In the same mountain range, significant difference is also found in overall accuracy of the model for prediction of snow day and no-snow day for different areas. This can be attributed to their geographical position and topographical differences. The analog weather forecast model performs better than persistence and climatological forecast for day-1 predictions for all the mountain ranges except Karakoram range in NW-Himalaya. The developed analog weather forecast model may help as a guidance tool for forecasting weather in operational weather forecasting mode in different mountain ranges in NW-Himalaya.     

Monitoring and evaluation of seasonal snow cover in Kashmir valley using remote sensing,GIS and ancillary data

Seasonal snow cover is a vital natural resource in the Himalaya. Monitoring of the areal extent of seasonal snow cover is important for both climatological studies as well as hydrological applications. In the present paper, snow cover monitoring was carried out to evaluate the region-wise accumulation and ablation pattern of snow cover in Pir Panjal and Shamshawari ranges of Kashmir valley. The study was carried out for the winter period between November and April of 2004–05, 2005–06 and 2006–07, using multi-temporal WiFS sensor data of IRS-1C/1D satellites. The study shows reduction in the areal extent of seasonal snow cover and rising trend of maximum temperature in three winters for the entire Kashmir valley. This has been validated with 20 years (1988–89 to 2007–08) climatic conditions prevailed in both ranges of Kashmir valley. Region-wise study shows the spatial and temporal variability in seasonal snow cover within Kashmir valley. Advance melting was observed in Banihal and Naugam/Tangdhar regions than Gurez and Machhal regions. Different geographical parameters of these regions were studied to evaluate the influence on snow cover and it was observed that altitude and position of region with respect to mountain range are the deciding factors for retaining the seasonal snow cover for longer duration. Such region-wise study of snow cover monitoring, can provide vital inputs for planning the hydropower projects, development in habitat areas, recreational and strategic planning in the region.     

Sustainable groundwater resources, Heretaunga Plains, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand

 The Heretaunga Plains, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand, is underlain by Quaternary fluvial, estuarine-lagoonal, and marine deposits infilling a subsiding syncline. Within the depositional sequence, river-channel gravels form one of the most important aquifer systems in New Zealand. An interconnected unconfined–confined aquifer system contains groundwater recharged from the Ngaruroro River bed at the inland margin of the plain, 20 km from the coast. At the coast, gravel aquifers extend to a depth of 250 m. In 1994–95, 66 Mm³ of high quality groundwater was abstracted for city and rural water supply, agriculture, industry, and horticulture. Use of groundwater, particularly for irrigation, has increased in the last 5 years. Concern as to the sustainability of the groundwater resource led to a research programme (1991–96). This paper presents the results and recommends specific monitoring and research work to refine the groundwater balance, and define and maintain the sustainable yield of the aquifer system. Three critical management factors are identified. These are (1) to ensure maintenance of consistent, unimpeded groundwater recharge from the Ngaruroro River; (2) to specifically monitor groundwater levels and quality at the margins of the aquifer system, where transmissivity is <5000 m²/d and summer groundwater levels indicate that abstraction exceeds recharge; (3) to review groundwater-quality programs to ensure that areas where contamination vulnerability is identified as being highest are covered by regular monitoring. Received, January 1998 / Revised, August 1998, March 1999 / Accepted, April 1999     

A SIMS zircon age for a biostratigraphically dated Upper Viséan (Asbian) bentonite in the Central-European Variscides (Bardo Unit,Polish Sudetes)

A Lower Carboniferous platform sedimentary sequence (the Paprotnia Beds) in the Bardo Unit of the central Sudetes (NE part of the Bohemian Massif, SW Poland) is biostratigraphically well dated, based on rich macro- and micro-fossil evidence, as Late Viséan (late Asbian, crenistria, Go III α zone). The beds contain several bentonite layers, one of which was dated using the U–Pb SHRIMP method on volcanic zircons and yielded an age of 334 ± 3 Ma. This date fits well to the recently established chronostratigraphic limits of the Viséan, and is consistent with the newest isotopic age constraints of 336.5–332 Ma for the Asbian boundaries.     

A study on the hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry of groundwater from different depths in a coastal aquifer: Annamalai Nagar,Tamilnadu, India

Chemical characterization of groundwater is essential to bring out its nature and utility. Samples from shallow and deep ground water of the same location were collected and studied for their geochemical characteristics following standard procedures (APHA 1998). Sediment samples from different depths were collected and analysed for minerals using FTIR and SEM. Resisitivity logging was carried out in the bore well to understand the variations in depth to fresh water potential. The shallow ground water is dominated by Na–Cl–HCO₃–SO₄ and deeper groundwater by Na–HCO₃–SO₄–Cl types. It is observed that there is a significant ionic variation with depth. The ionic strength of the deeper samples is lesser than in the shallower samples. Wide pH variations in the shallow water samples are due to ion exchange process. Thermodynamic stability plot was used to identify the state of stability. It is inferred that there is no major significant difference in the thermodynamic state of stability in the shallow and the deeper aquifers as the aquifer matrix for the shallow and deeper aquifers are almost similar. Saturation index of Gibbsite, Kaolinite, Calcite, Dolomite and anhydrite, were studied for shallow and deep aquifers, to identify the difference in hydro chemical signatures. The Si/Al ratios of shallow samples are less when compared with the deeper samples. Leaching of secondary salts was the chief mechanism controlling the ground water chemistry of the region.     

Generation of a landslide risk index map for Cuba using spatial multi-criteria evaluation

This paper explains the procedure for the generation of a landslide risk index map at national level in Cuba, using a semi-quantitative model with ten indicator maps and a cell size of 90 × 90 m. The model was designed and implemented using spatial multi-criteria evaluation techniques in a GIS system. Each indicator was processed, analysed and standardised according to its contribution to hazard and vulnerability. The indicators were weighted using direct, pairwise comparison and rank-ordering weighting methods, and weights were combined to obtain the final landslide risk index map. The results were analysed per physiographic region and administrative units at provincial and municipal levels. The Sierra Maestra mountain system was found to have the largest concentration of high landslide risk index values while the Nipe–Cristal–Baracoa system has the highest absolute values, although they are more dispersed. The results obtained allow designing an appropriated landslide risk mitigation plan at national level and to link the information to the national hurricane early warning system, allowing also warning and evacuation for landslide-prone areas.     

Recharge mode and mineralization of groundwater in a semi-arid region: Sidi Bouzid plain (central Tunisia)

Groundwater is the most important source of water supply in Sidi Bouzid plain located in central Tunisia. Proper understanding of the geochemical evolution of groundwater is important for sustainable development of water resources in this region. A hydrogeochemical survey was conducted on the Mio–Plio–Quaternary aquifer system using stable isotopes, radiocarbon, tritium and major elements, in order to evaluate the groundwater chemistry patterns and the main mineralization processes occurring in this system. The chemical data indicate that dissolution of evaporate minerals and evaporation are the main processes controlling groundwater mineralization. The isotopic data show that groundwater in the study area is a mixture of recent shallow waters located upstream and along Wadi Al Fakka bed and paleowaters located towards plain limits and discharge areas. Low ³H and ¹⁴C contents are observed in major part of the plain indicating that recharge of the aquifer occurs mainly through direct infiltration at Wadi Al Fakka while there is no evidence of significant recharge in major part of the plain and mountains piedmonts.