Status, directions and priorities of reindeer husbandry research in Sweden

Emerging out of small-scale reindeer farming, large-scale reindeer husbandry in Sweden and Norway was developed to counteract resource scarcity caused by depleted wild reindeer numbers and human population growth above what the former subsistence economy could sustain. Current numbers of reindeer are likely lower and fluctuate less than before wild reindeer were depleted and reindeer husbandry started on a large scale. Productivity is about 7-8 kg of meat per head in winter stock. Current problems arise from a multitude of circumstances, some of them related to the problems of practising a subsistence type of living in close connection with a modern industrialized society. Problems include: low production, typical for harsh conditions and use of an unimproved animal stock; the inability to support a modern standard of living solely from reindeer; the collective access to grazing grounds which makes internal management difficult; unclear legal rights resulting in conflicting interests with other land users and formal owners; and the relatively low number of people directly involved in reindeer husbandry. Possible long-term consequences are marginalization and the loss of land use rights, with negative consequences for the Saami as an indigenous people. Reindeer husbandry research addresses these problems by integrating human-ecological and socio-economic aspects with traditional natural science orientated research on reindeer husbandry problems. This research is funded by a multitude of sources. Independently of this, research is conducted on Saami life and culture in relation to reindeer husbandry at various universities, especially within social sciences and arts.     

Response of reindeer and caribou to human activities

Petroleum and mineral exploration and extraction, hydroelectric development, atmospheric transport of contaminants, timber harvesting and tourism are increasing worldwide, especially in the Arctic. This development may adversely affect populations of reindeer/caribou ( Rangifer tarandus ) which are the basis of subsistence economies for northern indigenous peoples. Our purpose is to present a survey of the literature that has investigated the response of reindeer/caribou to human activities. Individuals and groups of reindeer/caribou: 1) move away from point sources of disturbance; 2) increase activity and energy expenditure near disturbance; 3) delay crossing or fail to cross linear structures; 4) shift away from areas of extensive and intensive development; and 5) are killed by collisions with vehicles and by hunting along roads. Cows and calves during the calving season are the most easily disturbed group. Bulls in general and all reindeer/caribou during insect harassment are least likely to avoid development areas. Estimation of the proportion of a population that is exposed to disturbance and the implications of this exposure to annual energy budgets, survival and productivity of reindeer/caribou has received little attention. Future advances in understanding the implications of human disturbance to reindeer/caribou will require cumulative effects assessment at annual, population and regional scales. Although some level of cumulative effect is likely, clear separation of cumulative effects of development from natural variation in caribou habitat use and demography will be difficult.     

Factors affecting the seed-setting success of Dryas octopetala in front of Brøggerbreen (Brøgger Glacier) in the high Arctic, Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard

To determine the factors restricting plant reproduction in front of a glacier, the gender expression and seed production of Dryas octopetala L. (Rosaceae) were observed, as well as the grazing pattern of reindeer on flowers, near Brøggerbreen (Brøgger Glacier), which is near Ny-Ålesund (78° 55'N, 11° 56'E), Svalbard. Three hundred shoots with flowers and flower buds were randomly tagged in early July 1996. Between then and the end of flowering in late July, 100 (33%) flowers and buds were grazed by reindeer. Out of the surviving flowers, 145 (76%) shoots had hermaphrodite flowers, while 45 (24%) shoots had male flowers without a developed gynocium. Male flowers, which appeared later than hermaphrodite flowers in the population, were significantly smaller than hermaphrodite flowers in dry weight. In the hermaphrodite flowers, moreover, smaller flowers showed lower dry-weight allocation to the gynoecium as compared to larger flowers. During the observation, hermaphrodite flowers did not produce any developed seeds under a natural condition (0% seed-set). Cross-pollinated flowers showed 8% seed-set. On the other hand, flowers which were artificially warmed in small greenhouses during the flowering period showed 60% seed-set, regardless of cross-pollination or autodeposition of pollen from anthers to stigma (self-pollination). Thus, it was found that grazing, gender variation in relation to the length of the growing season and the flower size, and - in the floweriing period - low temperature rather than pollinator limitation strongly affected the seed production of D. octopetala in the population studied.     

辽宁省春玉米全育期的气候适宜度及年景评估

为评价气候变化对玉米生长的影响,以辽宁省为例选取1969—2018年18个气象站点的逐日实测气象数据,利用模糊数学法建立春玉米气候适宜度评估模型,以地理信息技术为依托,探究春玉米气候适宜度的时空特征,并在此基础上进行玉米气候年景的综合评估。结果表明:①辽宁省春玉米全生育期内日照、温度、降水适宜度波动幅度较大;然而春玉米种植气候适宜度的空间差异性较弱。②春玉米各生育期气候适宜度由高到低为:出苗期>开花期>成熟期>播种期。全生育期温度适宜度最高,日照适宜度次之,降水适宜度最低。③春玉米播种期、出苗期、开花期和成熟期的气候适宜度最高值分别出现在辽阳、葫芦岛、营口和铁岭。④春玉米气候年景准确率达64%,表明该评估方法可以较为准确地反映气候年景。近50 a辽宁省春玉米偏好的年景有4个年份(1971、1979、1993、1998年),较差的有1969年(4.98%)及1973年(5.59%)。     

High voltage transmission lines and their effect on reindeer: a research programme in progress

We review literature on high voltage transmission lines and their effect on wild reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus ) migration patterns and area use. We conclude that reliable knowledge is lacking on the effects of transmission lines on reindeer ecology. This condition relates to the lack of long-term monitoring of reindeer migration patterns in relation to existing lines. It is also related to the fact that nothing is known about hearing in reindeer (or any other deer species in Norway) in relation to transmission line noise, which is considered an obstacle for migrating reindeer.
We then outline a research programme that includes a laboratory study to determine the audiogram in reindeer and two field studies to examine the proximate effects of transmission lines - independently as well as combined with ambient environmental variables - on reindeer behaviour. The audiogram in two yearling male reindeer has been determined; this part of the study will be completed this year with the determination of a corresponding audiogram in two female yearlings. The behaviour study of domestic reindeer under high voltage transmission lines was completed in September 1999. The behaviour study of wild reindeer in the area crossed by a 420 kV power line will continue this year and its completion is anticipated in 2001.     

Assessing farmland dynamics and land degradation on Sahelian landscapes using remotely sensed and socioeconomic data

Through the integration of SPOT HRV, biophysical and socioeconomic information, the study identified population carrying capacities and their vulnerability to land degradation. Land use intensification on the landscapes was quantified into expansion, early and late phases based on the Ruthenberg index calculated using a biennial series of SPOT images for the period 1986-96. Subsequently, farmland dynamic on different landscapes was calculated while observed patterns were linked with agricultural intensification and population carrying capacity. Results show a pattern of agricultural land degradation due to increasing pressure of population and agricultural intensification within a system characterised by little or no use of inputs. Fifty-six percent of the study area supports a population density higher than the carrying capacity (≤ 15 pers/km^-2). Sixty-three percent of the study area is under early to late phases of agricultural intensification. Between 1986-96, cultivation declined 2-3% annually on landscapes with Low risk of degradation but increased by 1-2% on those with Average/Extreme risks. This emphasises the process of land abandonment as farmers move on to cultivating marginal lands despite above normal seasonal rainfalls observed during most of the period. By 1996, cultivation tended to include fields much farther away from the vicinity of villages, compared with 10 years earlier. Furthermore, by 1996, farmlands in the zones of late intensification declined from 12 to 4% and increased from 6 to 11% in the zone under the expansion phase. Indicating that by 1996 substantial amount of the land area required increasing lengths of fallowing. The spatial GIS modelling approach allowed not only identification of zones but synthesis of the observed pattern of landscape degradation. The paper highlights the need for combining remote sensing, biophysical and socio-economic data in environmental degradation studies in developing countries with their poor data availability. The role of developing countries scientists is stressed in taking the forefront to tackle environmental problems, which affect their region. The paper calls for increased co-operation between these scientists and regional and international data providers to overcome data availability problems and pave the way for better local and regional studies on environmental degradation.     

Regional effects of climate change on reindeer: a case study of the Muotkatunturi region in Finnish Lapland

Few studies have investigated current climate changes for high latitude regions, and the impact of such changes on reindeer and indigenous people. Previous work by other authors has identified snow and ice conditions in winter as being critical in determining the availability of forage for reindeer. Deep snow makes it difficult to access food. Lack of food weakens the herd and can reduce the allocation of nutrients to the development of the foetus in the female deer. Climate data for Lapland, northern Finland, and Karasjok, northern Norway, are examined, together with reindeer calf numbers for the period 1977 to 1994 for the Muotkatunturi region (68°N 25°30'E). Between 1883 and 1993, precipitation increased but temperatures showed no clear warming or cooling trend. However, since the late 1980s, temperatures have increased. A regression analysis on the climate and reindeer data found that the warmer the winter prior to the rut, the fewer the live calves recorded the following year (r = 0.529, p < 0.05). Also, the wetter the winter prior to the rut, the fewer the calves recorded (r = 0.427, p < 0.10). In contrast, the warmer the autumn prior to their birth, the greater the number of calves recorded (r = 0.474, p < 0.10). These results suggest that as climate changes and winters become warmer and wetter with increased snowfall, calf numbers will decline. These findings have important implications for the Saami people who are heavily dependent on the reindeer for their livelihood.     

Remote sensing of the impact of reindeer grazing on vegetation in northern Fennoscandia using SPOT XS data

Digital image analysis and SPOT XS satellite data recorded on 1 August 1991 were used to monitor vegetation in the border region between Enontekio municipality, Finland, and Kautokeino municipality, Norway. A supervised classification on the red wave length channel was undertaken using training areas for maximum likelihood classifier to produce seven spectral land cover classes. The classification revealed great differences in vegetation between Finland and Norway. The largest difference was the lack of Cladinalichens on the Finnish side of the border. The area on the Finnish side is used for grazing all year round, while the area on the Norwegian side is a winter range only. According to official data for the local reindeer population, the average annual grazing pressure (head/area/time) is higher on the Norwegian side of the reindeer fence. The Finnish grazing practice is believed to have a detrimental impact on the vegetation, and has lead to pasture land degradation.     

Homeland Orientation of War-torn Diasporas: Remittances and Cultural Practices of Tamils and Somalis in Norway

Wild reindeer are under pressure from human development projects throughout their habitat. Norway is currently making a significant move to establish a new management model based on national reindeer regions and regional management plans. A focus on wild reindeer as a flagship species allows the species to be included as a broad conservation objective in complex land-use plans. The authors surveyed a representative sample of residents in the Rondane and Setesdal regions to examine their perceptions of the current status of reindeer and how management relates to other social and development issues. Local actors and institutions, including hunters, were perceived as more responsible and suited to make decisions about reindeer population sizes and management objectives than non-local actors. There was little local consensus on the role of human impacts on wild reindeer, and residents rated local knowledge higher than scientific knowledge for management purposes. Rondane residents attached more importance to reindeer than Setesdal residents, but the latter saw reindeer as more threatened by human development. New management approaches will need to take a social-ecological perspective and recognize that the inclusion of reindeer can enhance broader conservation goals at regional, national, and international levels, but may also escalate local social conflicts.     

Much ado about nothing: urbanization,predictions and censuses in Papua New Guinea

Urbanization trends in Papua New Guinea are analyzed using official data from the 1971 and 1980 censuses. The author suggests that the massive urban population growth rate for 1966-1971 was a figment of post-enumeration miscalculation. However, the data indicate that the annual urban growth rate for the period 1971-1980 was nearly four times higher than the growth rate for the population as a whole.     

Managing reindeer and wildlife on Alaska's Seward Peninsula

When reindeer ( Rangifer tarandus tarandus ) were introduced to Alaska's Seward Peninsula between 1892 and 1902, other ungulates were not present and large predators were either absent or less abundant than after reindeer were established. During the next 100 years reindeer numbers and distribution increased and declined precipitously on the Seward Peninsula; wildlife species repopulated this region through natural processes or translocations by man; the non-Native human population of Alaska increased dramatically and wildlife management became an issue of national concern creating diverse public desires regarding resource use; and both range and wildlife became intensively managed through complex, politicized processes. This paper provides an historical overview of reindeer and wildlife abundance on the Seward Peninsula during the 20th century and describes the effects of wildlife on the reindeer industry. Cooperative public processes have been initiated to bring diverse public interests together; meld indigenous, scientific and local knowledge of resources; and supplement governmental wildlife management programmes. Even so, the Seward Peninsula reindeer industry has been severely impacted by wildlife, especially caribou ( R. t. granti ).     

Trust Matters – Social Capital in Herding Cooperation in Finland

Reindeer herding is a nature-based livelihood of the indigenous Sámi people in northern parts of Europe and Russia. During the last decades, reindeer herding has become a more significant issue in the context of the market economy: the livelihood has transformed toward entrepreneurship, and the subsidies demand growth in the scale of herding. According to the national administration, the market values are highlighted. However, for herders, market economies are only one part of their livelihood. Another important part is their experience of reindeer herding as a way of life; for many reindeer herders trust in their livelihood and the social relations associated with their way of life are of equal or greater importance than economic aspects. In this paper, the role of social trust in the changing process of reindeer herding is discussed. Inherited tacit and cultural knowledge, as a part of social capital, strengthen reindeer herders’ experience of trust.     

Changing retail structure in Southern Sydney

Analysis of the retail structure in three local government areas in southern Sydney revealed many changes over the period 1969–1989: the number of establishments grew by more than 20 per cent despite a significant population decline; there was considerable evidence of the suburbanisation of the professions; and the composition of shopping centres reflected changing suburban lifestyles, notably as regards an increased concern for eating out, fitness and health, and personal services. Over time, the hierarchy of shopping centres became less clear‐cut and more attenuated. The geographical pattern of growth and decline suggests that the retail structure of the area is becoming increasingly complex.     

近30年来辽宁省人口增长的空间关联性研究

改革开放以来,随着辽宁省经济不断发展以及空间差异新变化,人口的增长也呈现出明显的空间关联性,并具有一定的时间阶段特点。作者选取1980—2012年人口增长数据,根据实际需要把辽宁省划分为61个基本空间单元,采用Geoda095i空间统计分析工具,分7个发展阶段对辽宁省人口增长进行空间关联性分析。结果显示,1980～2012年全省人口增长的Moran’I指数均为正值,反映出辽宁省各区域人口的增长具有显著的空间正相关性,并且随着时间变化,总体相关性呈现出“较弱-较强-较弱-较强-较弱”的阶段变化特征;同时,LISA指数反映的人口增长的局部相关及热点区域主要分布在沈阳一大连所连接起来的轴线上、环渤海地区和距离沈阳较近的辽东部分区域,且集聚模式多样化。     

Remote sensing of ice cap outlet glacier fluctuations on Nordaustlandet, Svalbard

Landsat multispectral scanner images and 1:50, 000 scale aerial photographs are used to measure marginal fluctuations in 22 outlet glaciers of the Nordaustlandet ice caps, Svalbard, for all or parts of the period 1969 to 1981. Little was previously known about the behaviour of these glacier termini. Digital analysis of Landsat computer compatible tapes yielded measurement errors of less than ±150m, whereas data extracted from aerial photographs had an accuracy of ±25 m. Of the 22 glacier termini examined using aerial photographs, 15 were retreating, four were static and three were advancing. Retreat was usually in the order of hundreds of metres during the period of observation. For any outlet glacier, retreat was probably a result of either (1) glacier response to climatic wanning since the early part of the 20th century, or (2) stagnation and thinning during the quiescent period between surges. Short term iceberg calving events may also be responsible for retreat in a few cases. All observed outlet glaciers of Austfonna were static or retreating between 1969 and 1981, but analysis of Landsat imagery and aerial photographs showed that five outlet glaciers from Vestfonna and one from Vegafonna were advancing for all or part of that period. Bodleybreen advanced by a mean of 440 and a maximum of 580m a⁻¹ between 1976 and 1981. Bodleybreen, Søre Rijpbreen, and Palanderbreen are identified as surging, based on increases or changes in the pattern of surface crevassing. The ice streams Aldousbreen, Frazerbreen, and Idunbreen also advanced between 1976 and 1981, but surface crevasse patterns remained largely unaltered and surging is not inferred.     

Chukotkan reindeer husbandry in the post-socialist transition

Reindeer herding in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, as in many other regions across the Russian North, has been experiencing a progressive collapse since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The collapse is typically blamed on Russia's privatization programme, which broke up collectivized reindeer farms into supposedly privatized enterprises. While this process did indeed bring significant changes to the practice of reindeer herding in Chukotka, this paper argues that a more fundamental issue is the political and economic change at the local level that most likely makes the collapse irreversible. Áccording to the rhetoric of the new "democratic" framework, the majority rules, and their priorities take precedence. As a result, the indigenous peoples and their priorities - chief among which is reindeer herding - have been squeezed into the political margins. This has been exacerbated by the development of a relationship of internal colonialism between dominant urban Russians and village-dwelling indigenous reindeer herders, which has led to greater inequalities between the two groups as the Russians monopolize both resources and power in the region.     

MIGRAT: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM FOR THE SIMULATION OF MIGRATION

Primary individuals and the households that they head now compose a significant proportion of US households. This paper examines the regional and intraurban distribution of primary households. Macro-scale data from the 1960 and 1970 Censuses are used to examine the evolving regional patterns of primary individuals and households. Using intraurban data for the 1970's, the paper also examines the impact of recent rapid growth in the number of primary individuals on the spatial distribution of primary households within urban areas. Inferences are drawn with respect to the macro- and micro-scale distributions of primary individuals and households and the impact of continued growth of this subpopulation on urban form and population distribution.     

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF PRIMARY INDIVIDUALS

Primary individuals and the households that they head now compose a significant proportion of US households. This paper examines the regional and intraurban distribution of primary households. Macro-scale data from the 1960 and 1970 Censuses are used to examine the evolving regional patterns of primary individuals and households. Using intraurban data for the 1970's, the paper also examines the impact of recent rapid growth in the number of primary individuals on the spatial distribution of primary households within urban areas. Inferences are drawn with respect to the macro- and micro-scale distributions of primary individuals and households and the impact of continued growth of this subpopulation on urban form and population distribution.     

Dynamics of population growth: Bundelkhand region--a case study

This paper analyzes the growth of population and its various characteristics in the Bundelkhand region of India. Bundelkhand region--a distinct histocultural and geographic unit--is a transitional zone between the 2 major physiographic divisions of India: the Gangetic plain and Peninsular India. The region is a less developed part of India where people are living in low social status with poor economic conditions; agriculture is the mainstay of the people, but the region suffers from the inadequacy and inefficiencies of irrigation facilities. The history of population growth of the region during the last 80 years has followed a multivariate course; besides the interplay of birth and death, in-migration contributes considerably to the population growth. The 1st phase (1901-1921) is that of progressive decline causing a very slow population growth--population decrease was mainly due to the influenza epidemic of 1918-19. The 2nd phase (1921-1951) was a period of moderate population growth due to the national political movements and disturbances together with some natural disasters. The 3rd phase (1951-1981) is marked by a rapid population growth mainly due to the decline in the death rate. Over the last 80 years, the total population of the Bundelkhand region increased from 3.45 million to 8.03 million--a net increase of 132.58%. However, this change is not high when compared to the national average of 176.11%. The total population of the region in 1981 (8,037,206 persons) is expected to reach 8,874,000 persons in 1991, and 9,797,000 persons in 2001. This will undoubtedly put enormous pressure on the resources of the region slowing down the pace of economic progress.     

Effects of weather and snow conditions on reproduction and survival of semi-domesticated reindeer (R. t. tarandus)

In this work we investigated the effects of local weather and snow conditions on the reproduction and survival of semi-domesticated reindeer ( Rangifer t. tarandus ) from 1962 to 1987 in four separate study areas in northern Finland. Reindeer density had no negative effect on calf percentage in slaughter (October-January) in any area. The higher the number of very warm days or mean temperatures in summer, the lower was the calf percentage in all forested areas (Sodankylä, Muonio and Ivalo). In the Muonio area, calf percentage was also reduced by winters with abundant snow accumulation. In the open, mountainous Kevo area, calf percentage was reduced with a high number of warm days (mean T>0°C) during the previous December. However, if the previous May was warm in that area, it had an opposite effect. High reindeer densities seemed to increase mortality only in the Sodankylä area. Abundant snow accumulation during winter reduced the survival index of reindeer both in the Sodankylä and Ivalo areas. In the Muonio area, mortality of reindeer was increased with a high number of warm days in December. In the Kevo area, reindeer density or any climatic parameters could not explain yearly differences in mortality. This study indicated that permanent changes in climatic conditions could have different impacts in woodland as opposed to open, mountainous regions. In general, if global climatic change means weather instability in early winter and more snow, it also brings more difficulties for reindeer. However, if climate change means that snow melts earlier in the spring, some conditions could become more favourable for reindeer.