Extraction of Phenol and Chlorophenols Using Ionic Liquid [Bmim]+[BF4]− Dissolved in Tributyl Phosphate

In the present work, experiments have been carried out with a focus to reduce the volume requirement of solvent by mixing with imidazolium based ionic liquids (ILs) for the solvent extraction of phenol, p‐chlorophenol, 2,4‐dichlorophenol, 2,4,6‐trichlorophenol, and pentachlorophenol from aqueous solutions. The effect of aqueous phase pH (2–12), agitation speed (100–450 rpm), solute concentration in feed (2–50 mg/L), temperature (303–333 K), treat ratio (1–11), and 1‐butyl‐3‐methyl imidazolium tetrafluoroborate [Bmim]⁺[BF₄]^? volume in tributyl phosphate (TBP; 0–0.7% v/v) on extraction of phenols has been studied and optimized. Parameters like strip phase pH (3–13) and stripping agent concentration (0.001–0.009 N) have also been studied for stripping of phenols from solvent phase. It has been found that 0.5% v/v of ionic liquid [Bmim]⁺[BF₄]^? in solvent TBP extracts more than 97.5% of phenol and chlorophenols from aqueous solutions with a treat ratio (aqueous to solvent phase ratio) of 5. Transport mechanism for extraction and stripping of phenol and chlorophenols using ionic liquid [Bmim]⁺[BF₄]^? has been discussed. The results show that by appropriate selection of extraction and stripping conditions, it is possible to remove nearly all phenols with a treat ratio of 5.     

The transport of xenoliths in magmas

Field measurements of the rheology of Hawaiian and Etnean lavas have shown that, on eruption, they behave as Bingham liquids with yield strengths in the range 70–450 N/m². Ultramafic nodules entrained in a Bingham liquid cannot settle unless the stress they impose on the liquid exceeds approximately 5–7 times its yield strength. Consequently magmas with yield strengths of 10–1000 N/m² can transport xenoliths up to 30 cm diameter without settling occurring. The size of nodules commonly observed rarely exceeds 30 cm. A review of experimental data shows that, when conditions are appropriate for settling, the terminal velocities of nodules in magmas are substantially slower if a Bingham rather than Newtonian Model is assumed.The view that large nodules imply fast rates of magma ascent is rejected. A case is presented for slow rates of ascent being more suitable for nodule transport as there is more opportunity for cooling, crystallisation and hence development of a yield strength. The relative abundance of nodules in the alkaline suite may be a consequence of their slow rates of ascent, whereas their absence in tholeiitic melts may be a consequence of rapid ascent rates. This interpretation is compatible with deductions on their relative rates of ascent based on other geological evidence.     

测井技术在地震目标追踪应用中的方法探讨

目前常见测井-地震综合应用技术主要是测井约束地震反演技术,该技术存在两方面的研究精度问题.一是初始模型等因素影响反演的精度和分辨率,二是波阻抗的多解性难免造成反演的多解性.由于存在以上原因,有必要探索其他方式的"井震结合"研究思路,根据测井、地震信息具有地质背景成因一致的特点,提出寻找二者具有的、可相互辨识的共同地质属性的分析方法,研究认为,测井、地震共同地质属性的辨识可表现在两方面,一是测井、地震信息在地质界面上下地质成因相同.深入研究两者可相互辨识的地质属性信息,可提供地质界面的识别与追踪依据;二是对于一个具体的地质事件或地质体,也理应找到具有同一成因基础的、可相互辨识的信息响应依据.利用该方法对羊二庄某区的实践表明,在测井、地震信息成因一致性分析手段的基础上,开展测井-地质共同地质属性的辨识、追踪研究,对复杂油气区有利目标的追踪具有有效性,该研究成果被钻井结果证实.     

A model of the Phlegraean Fields magma chamber in the last 10,500 years

Volcanological and petrological data suggest that the Phlegraean Fields volcanic activity has been fed, at least in the last 10,500 years, by a not-refilled magma chamber where trachytic residual liquids were produced by fractionation of a trachybasaltic magma. Using estimated volumes of the erupted products andP–T data obtained through petrological studies, a conductive thermal model of the chamber was built up in order to estimate its past and present size. Results suggest a volume decrease from approximately 14 to 1.4 km³ of the trachybasaltic magma in 10,500 years. Trachytic liquid would also be present in the chamber in a minimum amount of 0.4 km³. The model allowed some insights on the petrogenesis of the Phlegraean trachytes, suggesting that they were erupted as liquids because thermally buffered within the magma chamber.     

Extreme fractionation in felsic magma chambers: a product of liquid-state diffusion or fractional crystallization?

Extreme fractionation of minor and trace elements commonly accompanies very modest changes in major element concentrations in highly felsic igneous sequences. In such sequences, Si increases by only a few percent while, for example, Sr, Ba, Mg, and light rare earth elements decrease drastically, commonly by a factor of 10 or more. It has been argued, most notably by Hildreth (e.g. [1]), that such trends observed in tuffs were not induced by fractional crystallization (FC), but rather are a manifestation of compositional gradients in parental magma chambers which form via liquid-state thermogravitational diffusion (LSTD). The strongest arguments against FC are that (1) crystal settling is not a viable mechanism for crystal-liquid separation, and (2) extensive recrystallization is required to produce the observed trends, yet the tuffs are relatively crystal-poor. Many workers have noted trends in plutonic as well as volcanic rocks which are strikingly similar to those for which LSTD has been proposed, and some have concluded that LSTD was the fractionating mechanism.Several lines of evidence lead us to the conclusion that FC is the dominant differentiating process in high-silica magmas: (1) elemental trends are strikingly consistent with those predicted for FC; it would be a remarkable coincidence if diffusion-induced trends mimicked FC so closely; (2) large phenocryst assemblages in high-silica tuffs indicate low-variance liquid compositions that would be improbable if crystal-liquid equilibria were not controlling differentiation; (3) highly evolved plutonic rocks in many cases do not form the caps expected for LSTD, but rather occur in dikes and pods where they apparently segregated as late liquids; (4) recent experimental studies suggest that trends induced by diffusion differ drastically from observed felsic igneous trends.We do not believe that the principal arguments against FC in high-silica systems (unlikelihood of crystal settling; crystal-poor nature of tuffs) refute the reality of the chemical process, but rather emphasize the need for a better understanding of the physical mechanisms of crystal-liquid fractionation and eruption.     

Kupfer als Algizid

Physiological and ecological aspects of the application of copper sulfate as an algicide within aquatic ecosystems are reviewed. Excessive developments of algae due to eutrophication of stagnant waters have to be controlled by preventive measures preferably. Application of algicides should be an exception. The mostly used algicide is copper sulfate because it is effective, selective, economical and undesired ecological side-effects could not be detected. Since blue-green algae are very copper sensitive, blooms of that species can be controlled effectively. Although toxicity to fish and invertebrates has been proved for a wide range of concentrations, they are actually not endangered by the commonly applied copper concentrations, because they show avoidance reactions and are only affected by prolonged exposition to copper. Some authors, however, showed free ions to be quickly removed from the water body. Organic compounds, water hardness and high alkalinity decrease the amounts of soluble and toxic copper specimens. Some blue-green algae species produce strong copper-complexing and detoxifying agents-extracellular polypeptides and hydroxamic acids. Some chelatic agents, on the other hand, increase the algicidal effectivity of copper in alkaline waters. Also lipid-soluble ligands increase copper toxicity in many cases. Some uncertainty in knowledge call for further research. –to determine the very right moment for copper application before algal bloom appearance to avoid oxygen depletion and fish kills-therefore to improve forecaste of bloom development. –to define the dependence of copper toxicity on the physiological state of the algae. –to search for the effects of co-stress (simultaneous pH-shock) in order to restrict copper concentration to low levels and –to estimate and forecast partitioning of copper to the extracellular (chemically bound) and intracellular (taken up by algae) compartment.     

Immiscible two-liquid regions in the Fe-O-S system at high pressure: Implications for planetary cores

We have determined phase relations in the Fe-O and Fe-O-S systems in the range of 15-21 GPa and 1825-2300 °C. Below the liquidus temperatures, solid FeO and metallic liquids are observed in both the Fe-O and the Fe-O-S systems. An immiscible two-liquid region exists in the Fe-O binary system in the pressure range investigated, and the immiscibility gap between Fe-rich metallic liquid and FeO-rich ionic liquid does not greatly change with either pressure or temperature. On the other hand, an immiscible two-liquid region in the Fe-O-S ternary system narrows significantly with increasing pressure at constant temperature and vice versa, and it almost disappears at 21 GPa, and 2300 °C. Immiscible two-liquid regions are thus not expected to exist in the Fe-O-S system in the Earth's core, suggesting that both oxygen and sulfur can be incorporated into the core. Our results are consistent with a geochemical model for the core containing 5.8 wt.% oxygen and 1.9 wt.% sulfur as proposed by McDonough and Sun [McDonough, W.F., Sun, S.-S., 1995. The composition of the Earth. Chem. Geol. 120, 223-253].     

Investigation of nonlinear sloshing effects in seismically excited tanks

Nonlinear behavior of liquid sloshing inside a partially filled rectangular tank is investigated. The nonlinearity in the numerical modeling of the liquid sloshing originates from the nonlinear terms of the governing equations of the fluid flow and the liquid free surface motion as a not known boundary condition. The numerical simulations are performed for both linear and nonlinear conditions. The computed results using linear conditions are compared with readily available exact solution. In order to verify the results of the nonlinear numerical solution, a series of the shaking table tests on rectangular tank were conducted. Having verified linear and nonlinear numerical models, they are used for computation of near wall sloshing height at a series of real scale tanks (with various dimensions) under the both harmonic and earthquake base excitation. Finally, the nonlinear effects on liquid sloshing modeling are discussed and the practical limitations of the linear solution in evaluating the response of seismically excited liquids are also addressed.     

On the origin of eucrites and diogenites

Eleven eucrites have been analysed for major, minor and some trace (K, Sr, Zr, Y, Ba and Ni) constituents. These data are interpreted in terms of an igneous fractionation model according to which the observed enrichment trends of various elements in eucrite liquids are considered to be indicative of the simultaneous fractionation of plagioclase and pyroxene. Serra de Magéand Moore County are representatives of the cumulates thus formed. The achondrite Binda, a monomict breccia of howarditic composition, is interpreted as a possible precursor to the eucrite liquids. The derivation of a parent eucrite liquid from material of this composition could have occurred by fractionation of orthopyroxene. Diogenites are considered to represent the orthopyroxenites thus formed. The original liquid from which Binda and the eucrites were derived must, in terms of this model, have been more mafic than Binda.     

Investigations at Sites Contaminated with Dense, Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (NAPLs)

Increasingly, ground water supplies are being found to be contaminated with organic substances. Depending on the nature of these substances and the method by which they were introduced into the environment, they may form a second, dense liquid phase. Several such cases have been reported in the recent literature. In other cases, such a second phase might have actually been present but was not found because the principles governing its distribution were not understood and no effort was made to look for it. In this case, the undetected material could continue to migrate and act as a source of dissolved organics.
This article reviews the general principles governing the behavior of dense, immiscible second-phase organic liquids in both the unsaturated and saturated zones, based primarily on the petroleum industry literature for primary hydrocarbon migration and on the oil spill literature. This specialized knowledge can be used to conduct a meaningful and efficient investigation of such contamination sites and can also be used to select and implement successful remedial measures. Several actual case studies applying the principles of multi-phase flow are also presented.     

Turbulence,entrainment, and mixing in cloud dynamics

The various models that have been proposed for describing the dynamical development of small cumuli are discussed in terms of how well they predict the observed distribution of liquid water. The entrainment concept is examined and shown to involve contradictions when applied to growing blobs. An alternative process is offered in which the dominating factor in the cloud dynamics is the mixing in of drier overlying air down through the cloud until temporary static equilibrium is established. Consideration of the mixing process and calculations of the required dilution show this process can lead to the observed liquid water distributions.     

微囊藻毒素生物学功能研究进展

我国淡水水体蓝藻水华的频繁发生已成为我国目前和今后长时期内面临的重大水环境问题.微囊藻(Microcystis)因其产生对人类健康具有危害的微囊藻毒素而尤其受到重视.研究者对构成蓝藻水华的主要种类、微囊藻毒素的毒性、毒理等方面的认识逐渐明晰,但对微囊藻毒素生物学功能的了解还相对较少.本文对微囊藻毒素的产生,尤其是近年来随着技术的发展在微囊藻毒素生物学功能方面的研究开展讨论:总结了微囊藻毒素可能作为化感物质、参与光合作用、在微囊藻的越冬或复苏中可能发挥的作用以及可能参与微囊藻群体形成及维持等4个方面的生物学功能;分析了微囊藻毒素作为信号分子的研究现状;探讨了全球气候变化及实验室模拟条件下微囊藻毒素产毒与无毒株的竞争,并对微囊藻毒素未来的研究热点及组学技术可能在其研究中的应用进行了展望.     

Dissipative systems: Implications for geomorphology

A recent revolution in the study of nonlinear dynamical systems in the physical sciences has shown the worth of regarding systems as dissipative. The nature of dissipative systems in equations, bifurcations, and fluctuations. Some speculations are then made concerning the implications of dissipative system theory for geomorphology. It is suggested that geomorphological systems containing bifurcations will have both deterministic (universal and necessary) and probabilistic (historical happenstance) elements; they will have more than one solution (configuration) and this fact calls into question notions of process domains leading to the development of characteristic forms; they will possess varying degrees of susceptibility to change induced by fluctuations; and they will respond differently to local, regional, and global fluctuations.     

Evidence for magma mixing in the Mariana arc system

Volcanoes of the Mariana arc system produce magmas that belong to several liquid lines of descent and that originated from several different primary magmas. Despite differences in parental magmas, phenocryst assemblages are very similar throughout the arc. The different liquid lines of descent are attributed to differences in degree of silica saturation of the primary liquids and in the processes of magmatic evolution (fractional crystallization vs magma mixing). Pseudoternary projections of volcanic rocks from several arc volcanoes are used to show differences between different magmatic suites. In most of the arc, parental liquids were Ol- and Hy-normative basalts that crystallized olivine, augite, and plagioclase (± iron-titanium oxide) and then plagioclase and two pyroxenes, apparently at low pressure. Eruptive rocks follow subparallel liquid lines of descent on element–element diagrams and on pseudoternary projections. Magmas at North Hiyoshi are Ne-normative and have a liquid line of descent along the thermal divide due to precipitation of olivine, augite, and plagioclase. Derived liquids are large ion lithophile element (LILE)-rich. Magmas at other Hiyoshi seamounts included an alkaline component but had more complex evolution. Those at Central Hiyoshi formed by a process dominated by mixing alkaline and subalkaline magmas, whereas those at other Hiyoshi seamounts evolved by combined magma mixing and fractional crystallization. Influence of the alkaline component wanes as one goes south from North Hiyoshi. Alkaline and subalkaline magmas were also mixed to produce magmas erupted at the Kasuga seamounts that are behind the arc front. The alkaline magmas at both Hiyoshi and Kasuga seamounts had different sources from those of the subalkaline magmas at those sites as indicated by trace element ratios and by _Nd.     

Thermodynamics of liquid silicates, a preliminary report

We propose a model for the calculation of the thermodynamic properties of silicate liquids. In our model we make use of the Flory-Huggins regular solution formalism for liquid solutions. In this preliminary paper we have limited ourselves to demonstrating that the Flory-Huggins formalism describes satisfactorily the thermodynamic properties of simple liquid silicate solutions, i.e. systems in which only end-member components or solid solutions thereof occur as solid phases and where there is only one well-behaved liquid phase. To compare theoretical results with laboratory observations we need thermodynamic data for liquid silicates. For this reason we have included in this report a review of the available information on the latent heat of fusion of silicate minerals.     

Toxicity identification in metal plating effluent: implications in establishing effluent discharge limits using bioassays in Korea

Because of complexity and diversity of toxicants in effluent, chemical analysis alone gives very limited information on identifying toxic chemicals to test organisms. Toxicity identification evaluation (TIE) techniques have been widely used to identify toxicants in various samples including industrial wastewater as well as natural waters. In response to new regulation for effluent discharge in Korea, which will be effective from 2011, a necessity of studies emerges that investigates toxicity levels in industrial effluents. This work was a preliminary study examining toxicity levels in effluent from one metal plating factory using Daphnia magna (48 h immobility) and identifying toxicity-causing substances. Toxicity tests showed variability on different sampling occasions and the results of TIE methods indicated that both organic compounds and metals contributed to the observed toxicity in metal plating effluent. Further studies are necessary to help reduce effluent toxicity especially from direct dischargers, who will have to comply with the new regulation.     

Activity of iron and olivine solubility in basaltic liquids

Some of the factors which control the solubility of ferrous iron and olivine in basaltic liquids have been determined from experiments conducted in equilibrium with metallic iron at temperatures of 1150° to 1306°C and oxygen fugacities of log?O₂ = ?12.5to?14.5atm. In order to insure that the samples were in equilibrium with metallic iron and the gas atmosphere during the experiment, the samples were continuously mixed (60 r.p.m.) for at least 90 hours with a metallic iron mixing rod.The solubility of ferrous iron and olivine in basaltic liquid was found to decrease as the alkali and alumina content of the liquid increased. The activity coefficient of ferrous iron in the liquid was calculated from the oxygen fugacity and mole fraction of ferrous oxide in the liquid and varied from 0.79 to 2.00. The ferrous iron/magnesium ratio in the liquid relative to olivine was insensitive to the changing alkali content as measured by the constant distribution coefficient of0.30 ± 0.03 (SD). The calculated silica activity of these liquids varied from 0.11 to 0.50 and the distribution coefficient of ferrous iron-manganese between olivine and liquid was found to be1.4 ± 0.2 (SD). It was found that the major element content of olivine does not exert a strong structural control on the manganese content of olivine.The magnitude of depletion in the liquid of the metal oxides by the crystallization of olivine is in the order Ni > Mg > Co > Fe > Mn, which reflects the relative octahedral site preference of these elements. The composition of the crystallizing olivine reflects the ratio of the above elements in the liquid and is relatively insensitive to temperature, variation of the other elements in the liquid or to the changing magnesium/ferrous iron ratio in the olivine.     

Experimental petrology relating to oversaturated peralkaline volcanics: A review

Experiments specifically devoted to problems of oversaturated peralkaline rocks have been primarily concerned with quartz + feldspar + liquid equilibria, and the determination of the low temperature liquids in the feldspar primary phase region. The results are brought together, and compared with natural compositions, by recalculating and plotting in the system Na₂O-K₂O-Al₂O₃-SiO₂ (molecular). The minimum zone in the peralkaline quartz-feldspar cotectic is the synthetic analogue of most comendites and many pantellerites. Peralkaline trachytes and trachytic pantellerites appear to be the natural equivalents of synthetic low temperature liquids in the feldspar primary phase region, but the more peralkaline liquids cannot be a simple evolutionary series controlled only by feldspar fractionation. Experiments have yet to reveal the relating process (or processes) for the series pantelleritic trachyte to pantellerite. Feldspars separating from low temperature synthetic and natural liquids are usually Or₃₅ ±₅ i.e. equivalent to the composition range of the thermal minimum between the anorthoclase and sanidine solid solution loops in the alkali feldspar join. Such liquids may therefore be envisaged as the locus of compositions in the peralkaline system that are in equilibrium with alkali feldspar at the minimum in the solid solution series. Such feldspar, when it separates from the vast majority of peralkaline liquids is fractionating K₂O and Al₂O₃, making the residual liquids more peralkaline and more sodic. Development of the peralkaline condition in natural liquids is commonly ascribed to the « plagioclase effect », but this creates its own dilemma by seeming to be effective only in liquids which are already distinctively alkaline. Furthermore it can only work in a low pressure regime. Examination of the high pressure melting curves of possible mantle minerals shows that acmitic pyroxenes have the lowest melting, in either hydrous or anhydrous conditions, especially at low partial pressures of oxygen. This provides a simple source control by which liquids will either be intrinsically peralkaline (if the melt volume is small) or inherit the potential for low pressure operation of the « plagioclase effect » (most basic magmas). Alkali transfer is well-attested in solid ? vapour experiments and in natural examples of metasomatic aureoles. The mobility of alkalis (and iron) must figure in any realistic scheme of peralkaline petrogenesis. This points up the need for experiments designed to meet the challenge ofopen system magmatism.     

一种应用于三峡滑坡探测的新方法-SNMR法

三峡库区蓄水后,由于水位上升滑坡地区的软弱层遇到水就会变软并引起滑塌。核磁共振是当今世界尖端技术之一,我们首先将该技术应用于滑坡探查。本文探讨了用SNMR探查滑坡的方法技术以及通过SNMR实测数据求取与滑坡稳定性有关的水文地质参数,通过一个三峡的实例说明了该方法是一种快速有效的探测滑坡的方法。     

Causal and functional relations in fluvial geomorphology

The concept of causality has been a fundamental principle of scientific investigation for many centuries. Recently, however, there has been a significant reappraisal of the philosophical basis of the concept of causality and this has important implications for future geomorphological research. It is now recognized that there are two approaches to the study of relations between variables. Conventionally knowledge was divided into classes and, on the basis of time precedence, causal relations were defined. While this approach enables static systems to be analysed it does not apply to dynamic systems which exhibit mutual causality. This traditional view of knowledge became obsolete with the introduction of the concept of the continuum. Algebraic techniques now enable the solution of systems of simultaneous equations, provided that there are as many equations as unknowns. Significantly this approach applies to dynamic as well as static systems. Further advances in fluvial geomorphological research are dependent on the adoption of mathematical reasoning. This will concentrate research on the mode and rate of operation of channel processes and feedback mechanisms. Given this information it will be possible to develop a static process-response model to explain and predict channel response to a set of input conditions, and a dynamic model to simulate channel development through time and space.