Encounter norms, social carrying capacity indicators, and standards of quality at a marine protected area

This article examines visitors’ normative acceptance of encounters with boats at a marine protected area and the extent that the number of boats, size of boats, and size of boat on which individuals were traveling influences these encounter norms. Data were obtained from a survey of 439 people visiting Molokini Shoal Marine Life Conservation District in Hawai’i, and photographs depicting four levels of boat use and three proportions of boat size measured encounter norms. Number of boats most strongly influenced encounter norms, boat size was less influential, and the size of boats on which respondents were traveling had little influence. Visitors wanted fewer boats at this site and a majority would not accept encountering more than 15 or 16 boats at one time. When the impact of boat size was considered, they would not accept encountering more than 12 large boats to 17 small boats. Implications for future research and managing standards of quality and social carrying capacity indicators at this marine protected area are discussed.     

Evaluating sustainability criteria for a marine protected area in Veracruz,Mexico

Marine protected areas are designed to protect natural resources within their limits. The National Park Veracruz Reef System was declared a protected area in 1992, however in the ensuing 17 years only limited measures have been taken to reduce harvesting within the area. This study was conducted as a base line to evaluate the sustainability of the park area in the present open access regime. Indicators were selected based upon sustainability attributes and criteria previously defined, patterned after a method used to evaluate sustainability in agricultural systems. To evaluate the selected indicators questionnaires were applied to the inhabitants of three fishing communities surrounding the park. Results show a precarious sustainability index for the reef system of 45.87%. We observed differences in the sustainability indices for the three communities when a classification and ordination analysis were applied. Also, applying this analysis to the indices, we found differences between social and economic criteria. The application of this kind of evaluation for the management of the area is discussed.     

Fortress conservation at sea: A commentary on the Chagos marine protected area

The world's largest no-take Marine Protected Area in Chagos is examined in light of the Convention on Biological Diversity's provisions on Access and Benefit Sharing, as well as terrestrial experiences with fortress conservation. It is acknowledged that this closure presents a unique opportunity to preserve an ecologically 'pristine' area. However, the means by which the political process unfolded are brought into question. In particular, the fact that the UK proceeded with designating the area whilst the European Court of Human Rights was deliberating the right of native Chagossians to return to the island is questioned. In addition it is argued that the scale of the area poses significant management and enforcement challenges, which are not necessarily taken into consideration in the rush for large, no-take Marine Protected Areas.     

Challenges in developing China's marine protected area system

Since the 1980s, there have been continuous increases in the coverage of marine protected areas (MPAs) in China, and a total of 158 MPAs have been declared. The MPA system in China is characterized by (1) decentralised designation and management with reduced control from the central government; (2) a dominance of de jure fully protected MPAs that are often implemented as de facto multiple-use areas; and (3) a lack of objective evaluation processes. To improve China's MPA system requires an appropriate integration of fully protected and multiple-use MPAs, and an approach that balances the advantages of top-down and bottom-up approaches.     

Fishers' perception of a multiple-use marine protected area: Why communities and gear users differ at Mafia Island,Tanzania

This study examined the perceptions of fishers from two fishing communities with differing use histories and involvement in the long-standing (16 yr) multiple use Mafia Island marine protected area (MIMP), Tanzania. A randomly distributed questionnaire indicated that 94% of fishers believed that without the MIMP, there would be overfishing, dynamite use, destroyed habitats, and few fish. Fishers were more positive about core zones (no-take fishery closures) than general use zones (areas allowing selective fishing) as a consequence of increases in fishing pressure. Those that reported increased catches and sizes of fish since the creation of the MIMP were more likely to agree with present zone locations and more positive in general about fisheries and conservation planning. Most thought that fish size and gear restrictions were preferable to permanent closures. Perceptions differed among communities and gear users. Community and gear type explained 46% of the variance in responses about the perception that fisheries and conservation are compatible goals. Somewhat surprisingly, these effects were more important than catch increases or involvement in MIMP-related activities. The differences in perception between communities may be partly attributed to different fishing histories. Multiple-use zoning provides a means to identify and resolve conflicts and achieve what are likely universal objectives for fisheries sustainability and conservation.     

Use of local knowledge in marine protected area management

For decades, fishermen in most parts of the world have been experiencing a reduction in fish abundances. Overexploitation and increasing demands are the glaring visible causes, but weakness or absence of fishery management is the core problem. Faced with repeated failure of fishery management and the resulting overexploitation in fish stocks, new management plans are needed in order to preserve both fishermen's jobs and food security. A growing number of published sources have proposed marine protected areas (MPA) as a fishery management tool. The decision of MPA design requires close collaboration with local fishermen communities for it to be accepted and respected. This paper focus on the case of a Uruguayan lagoon, the Rocha lagoon, which is exploited by two fishermen communities. The lagoon is located inside a national park. Park authorities are in the process of designing a management plan that defines a MPA inside the lagoon. The plan also sets out the rules to be upheld for the artificial opening of the sandbar that separates the lagoon from the ocean. It is shown that it is relevant to study the local ecological knowledge (LEK) in order (1) to understand the fishery related ecological issues within the lagoon and (2) to highlight an existing conflict between two fishermen communities. Studying the LEK allowed a clear representation of the factors that must be taken into account when defining the management plan. Furthermore, the LEK study in itself creates an appropriate place for inter-community debate and it enhances the acceptance of the future management plan.     

Using compliance data to improve marine protected area management

Measuring the ‘level of compliance’ has emerged as a key performance indicator for MPA success internationally. Accurate interpretation of quantitative and qualitative compliance data is critical for determining which compliance activities contribute to specific management outcomes. To demonstrate the value of enforcement data in effective MPA management, more than 5000 enforcement actions from 2007 to 2013 from five New South Wales (NSW) Marine Parks were analysed. Specifically, it was tested whether through time: (i) the number of enforcement actions standardised by surveillance effort declined-indicating that ‘general deterrence’ was being achieved; (ii) the number of repeat offenders decreased-indicating that ‘specific deterrence’ was being achieved; (iii) the number of ‘local community’ enforcement actions standardised by surveillance effort declined-indicating growing support for marine parks was being achieved at the community level; and (iv) the percentage of young offenders (<25 yr) had declined-indicating that education programs targeting young adults were successful. Results indicated that general deterrence was not being achieved, with offence rates being relatively stable between years. In contrast, compliance measures were achieving individual deterrence, with the percentage of repeat offenders being very low (0.13–0.83%). Although compliance strategies may be making some progress in improving local compliance in some marine parks, the overall offence rate of local communities was concerning. The data suggested that there were major differences in compliance rates among age groups of offenders over time, although the percentage of young offenders declined over time in three marine parks. Over the six-year data collection period, there was no discernable improvement in compliance rates in most NSW Marine Parks. Overall, the significant value of collecting and analysing information on enforcement activities for MPAs was demonstrated, an often neglected aspect of their management world-wide.     

Seaflower marine protected area: Governance for sustainable development

The Seaflower MPA was declared in 2005 following a highly participatory process that culminated in local stakeholders formalizing MPA objectives, zoning, and management planning. It aims to conserve biodiversity, ensure sustainable use of the San Andres Archipelago’s coastal and marine resources and enhance equitable benefits for the local community. The decentralized, collaborative governance structure, complemented by an extensive interpretive program, remains strong. However, a lack of technical and financial resources has limited the systematic, sustainable implementation of management priorities such as enforcement and economic development. The implementation of forthcoming community-based programs, self-financing mechanisms, and increased national funding will enable advancement of these strategies.     

Bargaining a net gain compensation agreement between a marine renewable energy developer and a marine protected area manager

When the development of marine renewable energy (MRE) is only possible inside already established marine protected areas (MPAs), and there is a risk of ecosystem loss, environmental or monetary compensation -being the last step in a hierarchy of mitigation measures- might be an option for working out a trade-off between energy production and nature protection. In this article, it is argued that for this type of siting situation, instead of the well-established strategy of no net loss, a net gain should be provided from the MRE developer to the MPA manager, which acts as an incentive for the manager to cooperate and covers future potentially lost conservation benefits due to MRE potential damages. Based on this argument, a hypothetical example is used to demonstrate that a net gain is ensured only when there is a societal surplus from a combined MRE-MPA arrangement that can be divided between the players through bargaining. However, when asymmetric information is involved, it is shown that cooperative solution concepts are more sufficient for leaving both players better off after coexistence than before.     

Zoning strategies for marine protected areas in Taiwan: Case study of Gueishan Island in Yilan County,Taiwan

According to the United Nations (UN) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, there has been a dramatic decline in global biodiversity. The UN has made a global appeal for all countries to mitigate their impact on the environment. Marine environmental protection is one of the most critical and urgent issues in the world and many countries have commenced establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) by implementing ecosystem-based management (EBM) concepts. MPA planning has been considered one of the simplest and most effective methods to protect marine environments. Taiwan has recently developed policies that have focused on its marine environment, and there are plans to increase the size of Taiwan׳s MPAs to 20% of its total ocean territory by 2020, thereby achieving a sustainable ocean. To achieve this goal, the government must address specific difficulties associated with the location of MPAs and relevant zoning strategies. This study establishes MPA protection principles and a zoning framework for MPAs in Taiwan by using Gueishan Island in Yilan County as a case study site to examine specific zoning strategies. The protection of 3 objectives (hydrothermal vents, cetacean, and fisheries resources) is discussed in this paper. Multi-criteria spatial analysis and a geographic information system are applied to identify the most crucial area to protect. To understand the stakeholders׳ opinions and concerns regarding the proposed zoning framework, this research conducted in-depth interviews with experts and stakeholders. MPAs zoning strategies are formulated at the conclusion of this study that could assist in protecting critical marine resources and avoiding conflicts among various usages of the marine area.     

Equity, justice and power issues raised by no-take marine protected area proposals

In the face of growing calls for no-take marine protected areas (NTMPAs) and the development of a UK legal framework for them, fishing industry and related perspectives on the equity, justice and power issues raised by such designations are explored. Whilst these reveal growing concerns about the political and geographical marginalisation of the fishing industry, they also reveal a significant potential for the constructive participation of industry representatives in discussions and decisions concerning NTMPAs. These findings support the argument that this potential should be realised, as the environmental coherence of our seas need not be achieved through the social and economic isolation of our fishing industry.     

Social acceptability of a marine protected area: The case of Reunion Island

This paper examines variations in social acceptability of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) prior to implementation. The influence of a number of factors, including socio-economic characteristics, perception of coral resources state of health and attitudes towards non-compliance with regulations are analysed. During May 2006, 640 questionnaires were distributed to school children around Reunion Island, Western Indian Ocean, for completion by their parents, following an informal educational activity made in school. From a 73% (n = 469) response rate, results showed that 78% of participants were in favour of the MPA. Analysis further identified that those supportive of the MPA were generally from higher socio-professional categories, had a negative perception of the coral reef ecosystem's health and were not originally from Reunion. In contrast, locals (born in Reunion) from lower socio-professional categories or with no employment activity and having a positive perception of the health status of coral reefs offered no opinion on the MPA. Attitudes towards enforcement and compliance highlighted that SCUBA divers, fishers and jet skiers attributed a higher value to the protection of the coral reef environment through enforcement of MPA regulations than to their own use of the coral reef resource. When asked about the use of penalties to deter non-compliance, swimmers were awarded the lowest fines, followed by SCUBA divers, fishers then jet skiers being awarded the highest fines. Thus, the more severe the act of non-compliance by a resource user group was perceived to be, the more these users themselves disapproved of non-compliant behaviour and supported use of high penalties. The survey design through focusing on school children's parents, demonstrated a simple and cost-effective method for data collection while providing environmental education, which could be employed in similar case studies elsewhere.     

Movement patterns of the parrotfish Sparisoma cretense in a Mediterranean marine protected area

Understanding the movements of exploited fish has become a major concern for several management and conservation initiatives, such as the implementation of well designed marine protected areas. Movements of an important recreational target species from the Mediterranean Sea, the parrotfish Sparisoma cretense, were determined in a marine protected area using passive acoustic telemetry, to evaluate site fidelity and homing, quantify home range and identify temporal patterns. Six adult parrotfish (20.8–29.8 cm total length) were caught along the north-eastern coast of Lampedusa (Italy) and surgically implanted with acoustic transmitters. Three fish were caught and released at the same site within the integral (i.e. “no entry-no take”) reserve, whereas the others were caught outside the reserve boundary and released at the mid reserve 0.5 km apart. Two of the three fish that were released away from the capture site demonstrated homing abilities. Four fish showed a strong site fidelity, whereas the others moved frequently in and out of the monitoring area. Home range sizes estimated over the period of monitoring (up to 207 days) varied from 70,387 to 256,398 m², with core areas of 16,688 to 84,946 m². Home range size did not differ significantly between day and night. Home ranges of all fish extended beyond the reserve boundaries, showing example of potential spillover into take zones. Temporal activity patterns of fish were diurnal with a dominant diel rhythm, likely due to a resting behaviour at night. Though not specifically designed to protect exploited fish, the marine reserve of Lampedusa seems adequate for the conservation and management of S. cretense.     

Towards the 2012 marine protected area targets in Eastern Africa

The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity has set ambitious targets for the establishment and management of protected areas. For the oceans, the overall aim is to establish, by 2012, an effectively managed, representative, global system of marine protected areas (MPAs) covering 10% of all marine ecological regions, comprising both multiple use areas and strictly protected areas. An analysis of data for three countries in Eastern Africa, where considerable efforts to promote MPAs by many agencies have been made over the past decade, shows that rapid progress has been made towards achieving this target. Since the first MPAs were established in the 1960s and 1970s, 8.7% of the continental shelf in Kenya, 8.1% in Tanzania and 4.0% in Mozambique has been designated, with the size of recently protected sites markedly larger than earlier sites. Commitments to expand the MPA networks in these countries would, if implemented, largely achieve the 10% coverage target. The location of existing marine protected areas shows good correlation with known sites of high species diversity; and coral reefs and Important Bird Areas are well represented. Management effectiveness of MPAs is also improving. However, there are major constraints to meeting the MPA target in these countries. Many habitats and species are not yet fully represented, the area closed to fishing is less than the recommended 20–30%, and capacity building is needed to improve many aspects of management. Furthermore, despite considerable investment in monitoring of coral reefs and other coastal habitats, the data available do not show clearly whether biodiversity and socio-economic objectives are being met. Although East African countries need to be congratulated for their vision, the results thus far indicate the urgency of both improving monitoring systems for measuring progress towards the targets, and also taking further steps to expand and improve management of existing MPAs.     

Using choice models to inform large marine protected area design

During the last decade a number of Large Marine Protected Areas (LMPAs) – marine protected areas that exceed a minimum size threshold and are often in offshore or open ocean waters – have been designated in an effort to meet marine conservation objectives. Research on the human dimensions of LMPAs is limited, though comprehensive policy analysis requires an understanding of the full range of social, cultural and economic benefits associated with LMPA designation. This paper addresses this need by employing a stated preference choice experiment survey of U.S. west coast households to examine public preferences for different protected area designs sited off the U.S. west coast. Using data from over 3000 randomly selected households in California, Oregon, and Washington we estimate choice models and calculate economic values for a suite of LMPAs that vary in size and in the types of restrictions within area boundaries. Results show that the LMPA size yielding the highest value is ~15.6% of the west coast Federal waters. Results also underscore the importance of restriction type, as there are considerably different threshold sizes above which diminishing returns and negative economic values are derived from no-access reserves, no-take, and multiple-use designations. While the value of any specific configuration can be estimated using the model, results offer insight on optimal use designations from a public perspective for small (< 2.5% of west coast Federal waters), medium (2.5%–~10%) and large (> 10%) LMPAs sited off the U.S. west coast.     

Stakeholders’ perspective on the sustainable utilization of marine protected areas in Green Island, Taiwan

The management implications of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) cover the interactions and two-way effects between the ecosystem and local residents. Hence, support or resistance from stakeholders is critical to management effectiveness. The inclusion of the perspectives of stakeholders into the MPAs of sustainable utilization can reduce opposition and conflict, improving the effectiveness of MPA management through the input of local residents. This study used interviews, questionnaire surveys, and the Analytic Hierarchy Process to obtain the opinions of different groups regarding the choices and preferences of stakeholders in the assessed factors of the sustainable utilization of MPAs in Green Island, Taiwan. The results showed that the stakeholder groups have a consensus on the “completeness of ecosystems,” “processing of wastes and pollutants,” and “integrated management.” These results provide insight into the varying perspectives held by individual groups, accelerating the integration of different opinions in order to facilitate appropriate solutions and smooth negotiations.     

Developing a co-management financing mechanism to enhance the financial sustainability of marine protected areas in Taiwan

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are a cost-efficient and management-effective tool. Fishery Resource Conservation Zones (FRCZs) are one type of MPA in Taiwan, and they were designated to ensure the sustainability of fishery resources since 1976; however, government appropriations are the only financing source for FRCZs, leading to manpower and equipment shortages for FRCZ management. This study selected the Touching and Suao FRCZs in Yilan County of Taiwan as cases studies. To assess the feasibility of establishing a sustainable financing mechanism for MPAs, the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) was applied to examine respondents׳ willingness to pay (WTP) to setup a fund for FRCZ management. The empirical results indicated that approximately 90% of respondents would be willing to donate funding for MPAs, and the WTP per respondent is NT$586.51 (US$19.6). Thus, establishing an MPA fund is a feasible way to operate Taiwanese MPAs through a co-management framework involving the central government, local government, local communities and stakeholders. However, based on our empirical results, a co-management financing mechanism for MPAs should be established to ensure stable and diverse financing sources.     

Management priorities for seawater desalination plants in a marine protected area: A multi-criteria analysis

The development of seawater desalination plants to increase water reliability in coastal areas poses a threat to the health of near shore marine ecosystems and may affect the effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs) that have been established to meet international conservation targets. This paper applies a multi-criteria analysis approach to quantify stakeholder groups’ priorities for seawater desalination plants that have been proposed in communities adjacent to a National Marine Sanctuary. All groups placed the highest importance on minimizing environmental impacts on protected areas and endangered species that could be affected by water intake and brine discharge emphasizing the need for integrated land and sea conservation. Minimizing socio-economic impacts on coastal communities was much less important. Stakeholders also weighted reducing pressure on water levels in rivers, streams, and aquifers as more important than increasing water for residential consumption, which may foster coastal growth rather than replacing water taken from other sources. The study further revealed differences in the importance of multiple management objectives among stakeholder groups, which highlights the need to elicit distinct priorities of all groups to understand concerns and potential conflicts of desalination with existing marine users. The analysis of consistency ratios revealed that around half of all surveyed stakeholders had high inconsistencies in their responses, which suggests either a lack of understanding of desalination, or reflects the complexity of establishing desalination plants in coastal areas adjacent to a marine protected area.     

Co-management and adaptive co-management: Two modes of governance in a Honduran marine protected area

Selecting the best mode of governance for marine protected areas (MPAs) especially in developing countries has generated considerable controversy in the academic and policy literature during the last 20 years. In this article, two modes – co-management (CM) and adaptive co-management (ACM) – are analysed in detail, and an examination is made of an attempt to put these modes sequentially into practice in the first (2003–2009) and second (2008–2013) management plans, respectively, of the Cayos Cochinos MPA (CCMPA) in Honduras. Extensive fieldwork was carried out during 2006–2010 in three communities dependent on the CCMPA (Rio Esteban, Nueva Armenia, and Chachahuate) including key informant interviews, focus group meetings, household surveys, and participant observation. The paper’s findings are (1) that while the first plan implemented some CM principles (such as sharing responsibility between government, stakeholders and NGOs) it failed to deliver other CM principles (such as transparency and accountability); and (2) that while the second plan increased participation and transparency, and used a more adaptive approach, it still left many stakeholders out of the decision-making process, and its processes of experimentation, monitoring and social learning were very limited. The fact is that CM and ACM are laudable objectives, but very difficult to implement in full.     

Trading on conservation: A marine protected area as an ecological fix

Many developing countries have encouraged the expansion of mechanised fishing in order to engage in the lucrative export of seafood. This has caused a rise in the incidental mortality of marine wildlife. In recent years, widespread concern over wildlife deaths has been used by developed consumer countries to insist on mitigation measures or to impose economic sanctions. Hence, many supplier countries have been forced to implement wildlife conservation measures to safeguard their export-driven marine fisheries. In this paper, we present an account of how the Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, an iconic Marine Protected Area in eastern India, was created in such a context. We suggest that it serves as an ecological fix, i.e. a token spatial solution that removes environmental barriers to the accumulation of capital, and we describe how a combination of neoliberal actors has maintained it for more than two decades so as to greenwash subsequent industrialisation along the coast. Finally, we describe its social and ecological repercussions to highlight the contrast between ground realities and the win–win discourse that accompanies such efforts to integrate conservation with capitalistic production.