SENSITIVITY OF SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE RETRIEVAL TO SEA SURFACE EMISSIVITY

To estimate sea surface temperature(SST)with high accuracy from radiometrie measure-ments,it is no longer acceptable to assume that sea surface emissivity is unity or any other con-stant.This note presents an investigation of the desirable emissivity accuracy in relation to re-trieval.It was found that 1% error in surface emissivity can cause up to 0.7 K error in the re-trieved SST,although this sensitivity is often reduced to about 0.5 K on average because of thedownward atmospheric radiation at surface partially compensates for the emissivity error.Since thedownward atmospheric radiation ratio is controlled to a large extent by the integrated water vaporin the atmosphere and,secondarily,by view angle,the sensitivity of SST retrieval to surface emis-sivity has been computed as a function of these two parameters.     

Radiative surface temperature and energy balance of a wheat canopy

The sensible heat loss from a stand of winter wheat was calculated from radiometric measurements of crop surface temperature, measurements of air temperature, and an atmospheric resistance to momentum transfer; corresponding latent heat flux was obtained through the energy balance equation. These estimates of sensible and latent heat were compared with fluxes from the Bowen Ratio method. When radiative temperature was derived using a measured canopy emissivity of 0.98, calculations of sensible heat flux were systematically 50–100 W m^-2 less than Bowen Ratio values. The two techniques agreed more closely when an apparent emissivity of 0.96 was used with an apparent reflectivity of 0.03. The mean difference between the estimates of latent heat flux was then -16 ± 32 W m^-2.The surface temperature method showed less systematic error in comparison with the Bowen Ratio values than did estimates using the aerodynamic method.On leave from: University of Nottingham, School of Agriculture, Loughborough LE12 5RD.     

中国西北三类典型裸土下垫面地表宽波段发射率变化特征研究

利用2013年我国西北戈壁、沙漠和黄土塬区三类典型裸土下垫面野外观测试验资料,探究了上述地区地表向下、向上长波辐射（DLR&ULR）、地表温度（LST）和地表宽波段发射率（LSBE）的变化特征,结果表明:黄土站地表ULR和LST明显比戈壁和沙漠站偏低;戈壁宽波段发射率（GbBE）、沙漠宽波段发射率（DeBE）和黄土宽波段发射率（LoBE）具有明显的变化特征,尤其是日变化特征;观测期内GbBE、DeBE和LoBE平均值分别约为0.926±0.0452、0.916±0.0419和0.881±0.049。三站点地表宽波段发射率的数值大小和变化特征与陆面模式中所指定的参数化情况不符。地表发射率会受站点周围环境和当时气象条件等因素的影响,表层土壤湿度被认为是一个非常重要的影响因子,将来的野外观测试验中需加强相关影响要素的观测与分析。     

Satellite-based estimation of daily average net radiation under clear-sky conditions

ABSTRACT Daily average net radiation （DANR） is an important variable for estimating evapotranspiration from satellite data at regional scales, and is used for atmospheric and hydrologic modeling, as well as ecosystem management. A scheme is proposed to estimate the DANR over large heterogeneous areas under clear-sky conditions using only remotely sensed data. The method was designed to overcome the dependence of DANR estimates on ground data, and to map spatially consistent and reasonably distributed DANR, by using various land and atmospheric data products retrieved from MODIS （Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer） data. An improved sinusoidal model was used to retrieve the diurnal variations of downward shortwave radiation using a single instantaneous value from satellites. The downward shortwave component of DANR was directly obtained from this instantaneous value, and the upward shortwave component was estimated using satellite-derived albedo products. Four observations of air temperature from MOD07_L2 and MYD07_L2 data products were used to derive the downward longwave component of DANR, while the upward longwave component was estimated using the land surface temperature （LST） and the surface emissivity from MOD1 l_L2. Compared to in situ observations at the cropland and grassland sites located in Tongyu, northern China, the root mean square error （RMSE） of DANR estimated for both sites under clear-sky conditions was 37 W m-2 and 40 W m-2, respectively. The errors in estimation of DANR were comparable to those from previous satellite-based methods. Our estimates can be used for studying the surface radiation balance and evapotranspiration.     

Radiation balance at the surface in the city of S?o Paulo, Brazil: diurnal and seasonal variations

The main goal of this work is to describe the diurnal and seasonal variations of the radiation balance components at the surface in the city of S?o Paulo based on observations carried out during 2004. Monthly average hourly values indicate that the amplitudes of the diurnal cycles of net radiation (Q*), downwelling and upwelling shortwave radiation (SW_DW, SW_UP), and longwave radiations (LW_DW, LW_UP) in February were, respectively, 37%, 14%, 19%, 11%, and 5% larger than they were in August. The monthly average daily values indicate a variation of 60% for Q*, with a minimum in June and a maximum in December; 45% for SW_DW, with a minimum in May and a maximum in September; 50% for SW_UP, with a minimum in June and a maximum in September; 13% for LW_DW, with a minimum in July and a maximum in January; and 9% for LW_UP, with a minimum in July and a maximum in February. It was verified that the atmospheric broadband transmissivity varied from 0.36 to 0.57; the effective albedo of the surface varied from 0.08 to 0.10; and the atmospheric effective emissivity varied from 0.79 to 0.92. The surface effective emissivity remained approximately constant and equal to 0.96. The albedo and surface effective emissivity for S?o Paulo agreed with those reported for urban areas in Europe and North America cities. This indicates that material and geometric effects on albedo and surface emissivity in S?o Paulo are similar to ones observed in typical middle latitudes cities. On the other hand, it was found that S?o Paulo city induces an urban heat island with daytime maximum intensity varying from 2.6°C in July (16:00 LT) to 5.5°C in September (15:00 LT). The analysis of the radiometric properties carried out here indicate that this daytime maximum is a primary response to the seasonal variation of daily values of net solar radiation at the surface.     

地基微波辐射计工作环境对K波段亮温观测影响

该文研究地基微波辐射计天线性能及其工作环境对K波段20~30 GHz亮温观测数据的影响,根据辐射传输理论和天线性能参数分析建立模型,通过模拟计算给出辐射计20~30 GHz波段亮温观测对天线性能及其工作环境的响应,提出针对工作环境温度变化影响的订正方案,并结合观测资料进行分析验证。结果表明:如果辐射计天线增益和3 dB波束宽度决定的等效主波束效率η_e较低,则即使在能够经常进行辐射计系统液氮定标的情况下也必须考虑天线工作环境 (环境温度与辐射计定标时的情景差异) 对K波段亮温观测的影响。对某一辐射计液氮定标后1年多观测资料的订正验证表明:订正效果明显,尤其是在28.0 GHz和30.0 GHz两通道。     

机载微波大气温度探测仪多高度飞行观测试验结果分析

机载微波大气温度探测仪可以机动灵活地获取大气温度廓线信息。针对一次机载微波大气温度探测仪的多高度飞行观测试验,基于逐线积分模式和大气参数廓线库,建立用于不同飞行高度的快速辐射传输模式,分析了仪器观测亮温的质量并对仪器观测进行了订正;建立了基于神经网络的微波大气温度廓线反演算式,分析了不同高度、不同通道选择对于大气温度廓线反演性能的影响。研究结果表明:（1）较低飞行高度计算得到的各地表敏感通道地表比辐射率之间具有较好的一致性;（2）采用订正算式订正后,不同飞行高度的模拟亮温与观测亮温具有较好的一致性;（3）机载微波大气温度反演最优通道组合依赖于平台飞行高度;（4）采用最优的通道组合,4 200 m、3 200 m和2 500 m高度层温度反演均方根误差范围分别为0.5~1.8 K、0.5~1.3 K和0.4~1.0 K。      

Temperature and Water Vapor Weighting Functions from Radiative Transfer Equation with Surface Emissivity and Solar Reflectivity

Linearization of Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE) is the key step in physical retrieval of atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles from InfRared (IR) sounder observations. In this paper, the successive forms of temperature and water vapor mixing ratio component weighting functions are derived by applying one term variation method to RTE with surface emissivity and solar reflectivity contained. Retrivals of temperature and water vapor mixing ratio profiles from simulated Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) observations with surface emissivity and solar reflectivity are presented.     

大气红外探测器(AIRS)温、湿度反演产品的有效性检验及在数值模式中的应用研究

利用中国540个地面气象观测站点资料,对1和7月大气红外探测器(AIRS)的反演中国区域地面气温精度做了详细评估,分析了产生误差的原因。同时把AIRS的反演温、湿度廓线产品与T213数值预报产品进行比较,分析了它们之间的差异。为进一步考察AIRS温、湿度产品的有效性,我们把经过订正的AIRS地面气温以及温、湿度廓线产品分析同化到中尺度模式MM5中,用于华北降雪天气过程的对比模拟试验,分析AIRS反演产品对降雪量、水汽场、垂直速度场、散度场以及云物理过程等的影响。     

A review of applications of microwave radiometry to oceanography

The thermal microwave radiation from the ocean surface as seen from space is a function of the surface temperature and wind speed and is modified by liquid water and water vapor in the intervening atmosphere. Further, if the ocean surface is frozen, the emissivity is drastically increased and the effect of the intervening atmosphere is generally negligible. The emissivity of first-year ice is somewhat larger than that of multi-year ice.The data from the Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometers (ESMR's) on the Nimbus-5 and —6 satellites operating at wavelengths of 1.55 cm and 8 mm, respectively, can be interpreted in terms of rain rate, ice coverage and first-year versus multi-year ice determination. The rain-rate data are being used to establish a climatology of rainfall over the oceans. The ice data are being used by the United States Navy in support of international scientific efforts in the Antactic region. Both ice and rain data sets have been generated for the Global Atmospheric Research Project Data Systems Test.It is possible, by making multifrequency measurements, to separate the surface and atmospheric effects and to make useful measurements of sea surface temperature, surface wind speed, and atmospheric parameters along with improved measurements of rain and ice.     

A new perspective of the physical processes associated with the clear-sky greenhouse effect over high latitudes

The physical processes associated with the clear-sky greenhouse effect in the presence of water vaporare examined by including surface emissivity in the greenhouse effect formulation, and by introducing anew way to partition physical processes of the greenhouse effect. In this new framework, it is found thatthe clear-sky greenhouse effect is governed by three physical processes associated with (1) the temperaturecontrast between the surface and the atmosphere, (2) the interaction between the surface emissivity andthe temperature contrast, and (3) the surface emissivity. The importance of the three physical processes isassessed by computing their vertical and spectral variations for the subarctic winter and summer standardatmosphere using the radiation model MODTRAN3 (Moderate Resolution Transmittance code Version3). The results show that the process associated with the temperature contrast between the surface andthe atmosphere dominates over the other two processes ill magnitude. The magnitude of this process hassubstantial variations in the spectral region of 1250 to 1880 cm 1 and in the far infrared region. Due tothe low-level temperature inversion over the subarctic winter, there exists a negative contribution to thegreenhouse trapping. The seasonal variations are, however, dominated by the processes associated with theinteraction between the surface emissivity and the temperature contrast as well as the surface emissivityitself. The magnitudes of these two physical processes contributing to the greenhouse trapping over thesubarctic winter are about 7 to 10 times of those over the subarctic summer, whereas the magnitude ofthe processes associated with the temperature contrast ill the subarctic summer is only about 2 times ofthat in the subarctic winter.     

RETRIEVING ATMOSPHERIC SOUNDING PROFILES AROUND TYPHOON YUNNA USING INFRARED HYPERSPECTRAL MEASUREMENTS AIRS

In this study,we derived atmospheric profiles of temperature,moisture,and ozone,along with surface emissivity,skin temperature,and surface pressure,from infrared-sounder radiances under clear sky (cloudless) condition.Clouds were detected objectively using the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder under a relatively low spatial resolution and cloud-mask information from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer under a high horizontal resolution;this detection was conducted using space matching.Newton’s nonlinear physical iterative solution technique is applied to the radiative transfer equation (RTE) to retrieve temperature profiles,relative humidity profiles,and surface variables simultaneously.This technique is carried out by using the results of an eigenvector regression retrieval as the background profile and using corresponding iterative forms for the weighting functions of temperature and water-vapor mixing ratio.The iterative forms are obtained by applying the variational principle to the RTE.We also compared the retrievals obtained with different types of observations.The results show that the retrieved atmospheric sounding profile has great superiority over other observations by accuracy and resolution.Retrieved profiles can be used to improve the initial conditions of numerical models and used in areas where conventional observations are sparse,such as plateaus,deserts,and seas.     

Analysis of long time series of long-wave radiation fluxes above a pine forest

Summary ?The long-term variations of upward terrestrial (E) and downward atmospheric (A) long-wave radiation fluxes above a pine stand in the southern part of the upper Rhine valley plain are analysed based on monthly mean values from 27 years of monitoring. Equivalent blackbody temperatures of the canopy and the atmosphere are calculated and compared to air temperatures at nearby sites. Based on 324 monthly values each, correlations between A and E as well as A and global radiation G are analysed. Only the former are highly correlated. Monthly mean values of long-wave radiation A can be calculated from air temperature, water vapour pressure and cloud cover. The long-term yearly average of equivalent blackbody temperature of the canopy is 0.6 K lower than kinetic air temperature at nearby sites. Only small, insignificant increases of both blackbody temperatures and air temperature are found. Despite the strong forest growth, it is surprising that the ratio of canopy emission temperature to air temperature did not change significantly. Relationships between the changes of general atmospheric circulation and equivalent blackbody temperatures of the canopy point to a strong dependence on shifts of general atmospheric flow. Received February 24, 2000; revised April 18, 2002; accepted July 20, 2002     

A scheme for computing surface fluxes from mean flow observations

A computational scheme is developed for estimating turbulent surface stress, sensible heat flux and humidity flux from mean velocity, temperature and humidity at a single height in the atmospheric surface layer; conditions at this reference level are presumed known from observations or from a numerical atmospheric circulation model. The method is based on coupling a Monin-Obukhov similarity profile to a force-restore formulation for the evolution of surface soil temperature to yield the local values of shear stress, heat flux and surface temperature. A self-contained formulation is presented including parameterizations for solar and infrared radiant flux at the surface.In addition to reference-level mean flow properties, the parameters needed to implement the scheme are thermal heat capacity of the soil, surface aerodynamic roughness, latitude, solar declination, surface albedo, surface emissivity and atmospheric transmissivity.Sample calculations are presented for (a), constant atmospheric forcing at the reference level, and (b) variable atmospheric forcing corresponding to Kahle's (1977) measurements of windspeed, air temperature and radiometer soil surface temperature under dry vegetatively sparse conditions in the Mohave Desert in California. The latter case simulated the observed diurnal variations resonably well for the parameters used.Consultant, Atmospheric Sciences Division, Department of Energy and Environment, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, N.Y., pc11973, U.S.A.     

一个自组织气候模型

本文选择全球平均地表温度#AT#a和全球平均云量#An#a为状态变量。通过对气候系统中物理过程的研究与在气候意义上的合理近似，得到行星反照率α和大气有效发射率ε与状态变量的参数化关系，它们给出了气候系统内部几个重要的反馈过程。利用这些结果，建立起一个云和辐射相互作用的零维的非线性气候模型。在Hopf分支点附近，得到极限环的解析解，它们同数值解吻合得相当好，由解析解得到振幅，周期和位相差与太阳常数和CO2的近似关系，依此可估计它们在气候振荡中的作用，尤其，我们发现CO2的增加除有增温效应外，还能使气候振荡的振幅增加，这个结果意味着CO2的增加可能导致自然灾害周期性地出现或加剧。     

干旱地区大气与地表特征对辐射加热场的影响

本文利用美国犹他大学气象系的辐射和云参数化模式，对ＨＥＩＦＥ期间张掖地区１９９１年春、夏、秋、冬四季资料进行了计算，讨论了晴天条件下的大气状况态地表反射率与地表比辐射率等因子对地气系统的太阳辐射收支以及短波加热率与长波冷却率分布的影响；揭示了不同季节的整层大气反射、透过与吸收特征，分析了大气中各主要吸收成分对加热率与冷却率的贡献，同时就辐射模式的垂直分辨率对加热率与冷却率的影响亦作了讨论。     

Long-term variations of long-wave radiation in Moscow

Using the data of long-term (1958–2012) actinometric and meteorological observations of the Meteorological Observatory of Lomonosov Moscow State University, the observed and computed long-wave fluxes and the factors defining their variability are estimated. Obtained are the normals and determined are the limits of variability of effective radiation. Analyzed are the peculiarities of atmospheric back radiation. Demonstrated is the trend towards the decrease (in absolute value) in effective radiation caused by the increase in the atmospheric back radiation flux (E _a). The trend towards the increase in the atmospheric back radiation is determined by the increase in the values of meteorological parameters: cloudiness, atmospheric moisture content, and temperature. The content of aerosol and carbon dioxide does not affect the long-term variations of E _a registered in Moscow. Derived empirical formulae can be recommended for estimating the atmospheric back radiation and effective radiation of the Earth surface using meteorological observations.     

陆地上空大气温度廓线及地面辐射参数的卫星遥感

本文利用TIROS—N系列卫星HIRS—2资料，结合相应的无线电探空，提出了一个处理卫星遥感方程中地面辐射因子的新方法，在反演大气温度廓线的同时，还获得了地面温度及其比辐射率与统计反演方法得到的结果对比表明，本文的方法对低层大气的温度反演精度有明显的提高。地面温度及其比辐射率的结果也是合理的。     

Prediction of downward flux of atmospheric radiation from clear skies

At present, there are two approaches to the prediction of downward flux of atmospheric radiation at the earth's surface. One can use either empirical correlations or radiation charts. The empirical correlations, being very elementary, do not always agree with observations made under different conditions. The radiation charts on the other hand require detailed knowledge of temperature and water vapour profiles. In the present paper, a semi-empirical approach is advocated. The emissivity of water vapour measured in the laboratory is used to predict the atmospheric downward radiation. Since the laboratory data are based on a homogeneous atmosphere, suitable pressure scaling is employed to take into account the non-homogeneity in the earth's atmosphere. The atmospheric downward radiation is obtained as a function of local temperature, water vapour scale height, and temperature lapse rate. It is shown that the resulting predictions agree somewhat better with observations than do the predictions based on empirical correlations.     

Calculation of basin-scale surface fluxes by combining remotely sensed data and atmospheric properties in a semiarid landscape

Optical remote sensing data collected during the Monsoon '90 experiment in the Walnut Gulch Experimental Watershed in southern Arizona were used to estimate basin-scale surface temperature, net radiation (R _n) and soil heat flux (G). These were combined with several atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) models to allow computation of basin-scale surface fluxes of sensible (H) and latent heat (LE). The calculated fluxes were compared to averages from a network of surface flux stations. One ABL model calculatedH using a bulk similarity approach for wind and temperature with remotely sensed surface temperature as the lower boundary condition. With basin-scale estimates ofR _n andG, LE was solved as a residual. The other ABL model applied atmospheric profiles from a series of soundings in the conservation equations of temperature and humidity in the mixed layer to computeH andLE directly. By combining theseH values withR _n andG, calculation ofLE by residual also was performed. The ABL-derivedH values differed from the averages from the surface network by roughly 20 and 30% for the bulk similarity and conservation approaches, respectively. ForLE, these same differences were around 10 and 70%. The disparity was reduced to nearly 30% for the conservation approach whenLE was solved as a residual. Days with significant spatial variation in surface soil moisture and/or cloud cover were associated with most of the disagreement between the ABL-derived and surface-based values. This was particularly true for conservation estimates ofLE. The bulk similarity method appeared less sensitive non-ideal environmental conditions. This may in part be due to the use of remotely sensed information, which provided a lower boundary value of surface temperature and estimates ofR _n andG over the study area, thereby allowing for residual calculations ofLE. Such information clearly has utility for assessing the surface energy and water balance at basin scale.