On double shearing in frictional materials

This paper evaluates the mechanical behaviour of yielding frictional geomaterials. The general Double Shearing model describes this behaviour. Non‐coaxiality of stress and plastic strain increments for plane strain conditions forms an important part of this model. The model is based on a micro‐mechanical and macro‐mechanical formulation. The stress–dilatancy theory in the model combines the mechanical behaviour on both scales. It is shown that the general Double Shearing formulation comprises other Double Shearing models. These models differ in the relation between the mobilized friction and dilatancy and in non‐coaxiality. In order to describe reversible and irreversible deformations the general Double Shearing model is extended with elasticity. The failure of soil masses is controlled by shear mechanisms. These shear mechanisms are determined by the conditions along the shear band. The shear stress ratio of a shear band depends on the orientation of the stress in the shear band. There is a difference between the peak strength and the residual strength in the shear band. While peak stress depends on strength properties only, the residual strength depends upon the yield conditions and the plastic deformation mechanisms and is generally considerably lower than the maximum strength. It is shown that non‐coaxial models give non‐unique solutions for the shear stress ratio on the shear band. The Double Shearing model is applied to various failure problems of soils such as the direct simple shear test, the biaxial test, infinite slopes, interfaces and for the calculation of the undrained shear strength. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

考虑应变局部化的粗粒料剪切损伤力学机制

针对粗粒料的应变软化、剪胀等力学特性,通过考虑以剪切带为标志的应变局部化现象,建立了具有广泛适用性的剪切损伤力学模型。损伤模型采用了包体理论中的剪切带数学简化,基于应变等价原理、Weibull分布,推导了粗粒料的应力-应变关系方程。从剪胀作用的机制出发,提出可以描述剪胀弱化的轴向塑性应变和体积塑性应变的非线性函数关系。结合粗粒料三轴压缩试验中的伺服过程,提出了基于遗传算法的损伤模型参数确定方法。通过开展不同围压下的粗粒料三轴压缩试验,对剪切损伤力学模型进行验证,进一步分析了参数演化对粗粒料强度和变形特征的影响。研究结果表明,考虑应变局部化特征的剪切损伤力学模型可以高精度的模拟粗粒料的应变软化和剪胀等特征,有效揭示剪切带内部变形对试样整体宏观变形的影响机制,模型中剪切带参数和围压的关系与粗粒料细观机制一致,计算得到强度组成与颗粒破碎、重组特征较为吻合。     

A model of strain localization in porous sandstone as a function of tectonic setting,burial and material properties; new insight from Provence (southern France)

The analysis of three cataclastic band sets from Provence (France) reveals that the band density, their conjugate angles, their ratio of shear displacement to compaction, and the amount of cataclasis within the bands differ and can be expressed as functions of tectonic setting and petrophysical properties. We identify (1) a dense and closely spaced network of shear-enhanced (reverse) compaction bands; (2) a regularly spaced less dense network of reverse compactional shear bands; and (3) a localized network of normal shear bands. The field data show that strain localization is favored in an extensional regime and is characterized by shear bands with a large shear to compaction ratio and a small conjugate band angle. In contrast, distributed strain is favored in a contractional regime and is characterized by compactional bands with a low ratio of shear to compaction and a large conjugate band angle. To explain the mechanical origin of this strain localization, we quantify the yield strength and the stress evolution in extensional and contractional regimes in a frictional porous granular material. We propose a model of strain localization in porous sands as a function of tectonic stresses, burial depth, material properties, strain hardening and fluid pressure. Our model suggests that stress reduction, inherent to extensional regime, favors strain localization as shear bands, whereas stress increase during contraction favors development of compactional bands.     

基于数字图像测量技术的砂土剪切带分析

在进行土工试验时,土样端部摩擦效应和初始缺陷都可以引起试样的不均匀变形,进而形成宏观的剪切带。基于数字图像测量技术改进了GDS多功能三轴仪,进行砂土的固结排水三轴试验,获得了试样在不同时刻的应变等值线云图和局部应力-应变全曲线,研究了试样端部的摩擦效应。结果表明,端部摩擦显著地影响试样的力学特性,对径向应变的影响可达10%。通过在砂土试样中放置粉质黏土块的方法获得了宏观不均匀土样,并测试其剪切带的形成过程。测试结果表明,试样在两种材料的界面处形成不连续刚度,引起变形的不均匀发展,进而形成宏观的剪切带而破坏。     

Kinematic modelling of shear band localization using discrete finite elements

Modelling shear band is an important problem in analysing failure of earth structures in soil mechanics. Shear banding is the result of localization of deformation in soil masses. Most finite element schemes are unable to model discrete shear band formation and propagation due to the difficulties in modelling strain and displacement discontinuities. In this paper, a framework to generate shear band elements automatically and continuously is developed. The propagating shear band is modelled using discrete shear band elements by splitting the original finite element mesh. The location or orientation of the shear band is not predetermined in the original finite element mesh. Based on the elasto‐perfect plasticity with an associated flow rule, empirical bifurcation and location criteria are proposed which make band propagation as realistic as possible. Using the Mohr–Coulomb material model, various results from numerical simulations of biaxial tests and passive earth pressure problems have shown that the proposed framework is able to display actual patterns of shear banding in geomaterials. In the numerical examples, the occurrence of multiple shear bands in biaxial test and in the passive earth pressure problem is confirmed by field and laboratory observations. The effects of mesh density and mesh alignment on the shear band patterns and limit loads are also investigated. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

月壤双轴试验的剪切带离散元数值分析

土体的破坏问题一般都是从其剪切带入手进行研究的。针对真实月壤所处的环境（无水、低重力场、低气压等）和内摩擦角较大的特点,采用最近提出的1种考虑粒间抗转动作用与粒间范德华力2个因素的月壤散粒体力学接触模型,用离散单元法模拟了柔性边界条件下月球环境（含范德华力）与地球环境（不含范德华力）2种试样的双轴压缩试验,通过试样局部变形、速度场、孔隙比及转动场的变化情况研究了2种试样剪切带形成与发展。研究结果表明,剪切带的形成是试样内部应变局部化的结果,同时也伴随着试样内部颗粒相对转动的局部化,月面环境对试样的破坏形式与性状（剪切带的倾角及厚度）有显著的影响,探月工程中必须考虑到月面环境对月壤力学性质的影响。     

Analysis of soil‐structural interface behavior using three‐dimensional DEM simulations

The shear behavior at the interface between the soil and a structure is investigated at the macroscale and particle‐scale levels using a 3‐dimensional discrete element method (DEM). The macroscopic mechanical properties and microscopic quantities affected by the normalized interface roughness and the loading parameters are analyzed. The macro‐response shows that the shear strength of the interface increases as the normalized roughness of the interface increases, and stress softening and dilatancy of the soil material are observed in the tests that feature rough interfaces. The particle‐scale analysis illustrates that a localized band characterized by intense shear deformation emerges from the contact plane and gradually expands as shearing progresses before stabilizing at the residual stress state. The thickness of the localized band is affected by the normalized roughness of the interface and the normal stress, which ranges between 4 and 5 times that of the median grain diameter. A thicker localized band is formed when the soil has a rough shearing interface. After the localized band appears, the granular material structuralizes into 2 regions: the interface zone and the upper zone. The mechanical behavior in the interface zone is representative of the interface according to the local average stress analysis. Certain microscopic quantities in the interface zone are analyzed, including the coordination number and the material fabric. Shear at the interface creates an anisotropic material fabric and leads to the rotation of the major principal stress.     

煤系地层中炭质泥岩滑带土的初步研究

通过化学成分、X-射线衍射以及红外吸收光谱分析,研究了原状炭质泥岩及其生成的炭质泥岩滑带土在物质成分上的变化过程,揭示了两者在干燥和浸润条件下力学性能存在巨大差异的根本原因;通过对炭质泥岩滑带土重塑样的分组快剪试验结果分析,探讨了含水量、干密度等物理指标与抗剪强度参数之间的相关规律性,最终建立了具有实用参考价值的经验性公式。     

加荷条件下软黏土的孔隙演化特征

开展上海软黏土的宏微观三轴剪切试验,研究软黏土受荷状态下孔隙的演化特征。结果表明：局部变形在加荷初期就开始发生。随着荷载的增加,细碎团聚体增多,孔隙不断地扩展,生成大的贯通孔隙,孔隙定向排列明显,剪切带形成。微观结构参数与剪应力比呈非线性正相关关系,最大孔隙面积、孔隙比、孔隙各向异性率及分布分维数在受荷初期缓慢地增大,后期快速增大。应变为8%时,最大各向异性率达到0.68,最大孔隙比为1.96。剪切带附近的微观结构参数都大于带外值。在受荷过程中,土的微观结构发生劣化,软黏土变形过程分为损伤开始、损伤发展剪切带形成和土体破坏3阶段,微观结构的劣化与土的宏观力学特性紧密相联系。     

全球扭转构造体系结构要素分析

全球板块的分割和漂移并非杂乱无章,它们被力学性质各异的构造网络组合在同一应力场中构成全球扭转构造体系。本文从分析结构要素的力学属性入手来鉴定这个体系。该体系由一个NWW向螺旋型扭转压裂带为主干要素及NNE向张裂带、经向扭劈裂带和纬向扭割裂带等配套要素组成。      

Description of deformation process in inherently anisotropic granular materials

The main focus in this work is on modeling of mechanical response of granular materials that display inherent anisotropy. Both the experimental and numerical investigations are described. First, the results of direct shear as well as drained/undrained triaxial tests that involve crushed limestone with elongated angular‐shaped particles are reviewed. Afterward, a mathematical framework is presented for modeling of elastic/ inelastic deformation that incorporates the multi‐laminate approach. The deformation is monitored on a set of randomly oriented planes, and the formulation incorporates the thickness of the shear band that is associated with sliding/separation process. A systematic procedure for identification of material functions/ parameters is outlined that is based on the results of direct shear tests, and the framework is later applied to simulate the behavior under triaxial conditions. The results of numerical simulations are compared with the experimental data. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

平均粒径对砂土剪切特性的影响及细观机理

针对平均粒径对砂土剪切特性的影响作用,结合室内试验和离散元模拟方法对不同平均粒径砂土进行了细观研究。基于3种不同平均粒径砂土的直剪试验结果,通过建立反映砂土剪切试验特征的PFC（particle flow code）颗粒流模型,详细研究了不同粒径砂土在剪切过程中土样体积变化、力链网络、孔隙率和配位数等细观结构参数的变化特征和规律,并从细观角度分析了颗粒粒径对土样宏观剪切特性的影响机制。结果表明：具有不同平均粒径砂土的细观结构参数在剪切过程中存在显著差异,并且其细观参数差异主要集中体现在剪切带处;剪切力学特性的影响主要体现在抗剪强度和剪胀效应方面,砂土平均粒径越大,抗剪强度越高,剪胀效应越明显;具有不同平均粒径的砂土在剪切过程中土颗粒运动规律及剪切带形态变化特征存在一定的差异,平均粒径越大,剪切带内上跨式颗粒占比越大,剪切带厚度越大。     

Effects of periodic fluctuations of micro‐polar boundary conditions on shear localizations in granular soil–structure interaction

In this work, the interface behavior between an infinite extended narrow granular layer and a rough surface of rigid body is investigated numerically, using finite element method in the updated Lagrangian (UL) frame. In this regard, the elasto‐plastic micro‐polar (Cosserat) continuum approach is employed to remove the limitations caused by strain‐softening of materials in the classical continuum. The mechanical properties of cohesionless granular soil are described with Lade's model enhanced by polar terms, including Cosserat rotations, curvatures, and couple stresses. Furthermore, the mean grain diameter as the internal length is incorporated into the constitutive relations accordingly. Here, the evolution and location of shear band, within the granular layer in contact with the rigid body, are mainly focused. In this regard, particular attention is paid to the effects of homogeneous distribution and periodic fluctuation of micro‐polar boundary conditions, prescribed along the interface. Correspondingly, the effects of pressure level, mean grain diameter, and stratified soil are also considered. The finite element results demonstrate that the location and evolution of shear band in the granular soil layer are strongly affected by the non‐uniform micro‐polar boundary conditions, prescribed along the interface. It is found that the shear band is located closer to the boundary with less restriction of grain rotations. Furthermore, the predicted thickness of shear band is larger for higher rotation resistance of soil grains along the interface, larger mean grain diameter, and higher vertical pressure. Regarding the stratified soil, comprising a thin layer with slightly different initial void ratio, the shear band moves towards the layer with initially higher void ratio. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Finite strain analysis of nonuniform deformation inside shear bands in sands

A methodology has been developed to extend the incremental (Eulerian) Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique to enable a Lagrangian‐based large‐strain analysis framework to examine the nature of strain and kinematic nonuniformity within shear bands in sands. Plane strain compression tests are performed on dense sands in an apparatus that promotes unconstrained persistent shear band formation. DIC is used to capture incremental, grain‐scale displacements in and around shear bands. The performance of the developed accumulation algorithm is validated by comparing accumulated displacements with two sources of reference measurements. A comparison between large and infinitesimal rotation is performed, demonstrating the nature of straining within shear bands in sands and the necessity of using a finite strain formulation to characterize ensuing behavior. Volumetric strain variation along the shear band is analyzed throughout macroscopic postpeak deformation. During softening, volumetric activity within the shear band is purely dilative. During the global critical state, the shear band material is seen on the average to deform at zero volumetric strain; however, locally, the sand is seen to exhibit significant nonzero volumetric strain, putting into question the current definition of critical state. At the softening‐critical state transition, a spatially periodic pattern of alternating contraction and dilation along the shear band is evidenced, and a preliminary evaluation indicates that the periodicity appears to be a physical phenomenon dictated only in part by median grain size. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Thermoplasticity and strain localization in transversely isotropic materials based on anisotropic critical state plasticity

Geomaterials such as soils and rocks are inherently anisotropic and sensitive to temperature changes caused by various internal and external processes. They are also susceptible to strain localization in the form of shear bands when subjected to critical loads. We present a thermoplastic framework for modeling coupled thermomechanical response and for predicting the inception of a shear band in a transversely isotropic material using the general framework of critical state plasticity and the specific framework of an anisotropic modified Cam–Clay model. The formulation incorporates anisotropy in both elastic and plastic responses under the assumption of infinitesimal deformation. The model is first calibrated using experimental data from triaxial tests to demonstrate its capability in capturing anisotropy in the mechanical response. Subsequently, stress‐point simulations of strain localization are carried out under two different conditions, namely, isothermal localization and adiabatic localization. The adiabatic formulation investigates the effect of temperature on localization via thermomechanical coupling. Numerical simulations are presented to demonstrate the important role of anisotropy, hardening, and thermal softening on strain localization inception and orientation. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dynamic analysis of strain localization in water‐saturated clay using a cyclic elasto‐viscoplastic model

A computational framework is presented for dynamic strain localization and deformation analyses of water‐saturated clay by using a cyclic elasto‐viscoplastic constitutive model. In the model, the nonlinear kinematic hardening rule and softening due to the structural degradation of soil particles are considered. In order to appropriately simulate the large deformation phenomenon in strain localization analysis, the dynamic finite element formulation for a two‐phase mixture is derived in the updated Lagrangian framework. The shear band development is shown through the distributions of viscoplastic shear strain, the axial strain, the mean effective stress, and the pore water pressure in a normally consolidated clay specimen. From the local stress–strain relations, more brittleness is found inside the shear bands than outside of them. The effects of partially drained conditions and mesh‐size dependency on the shear banding are also investigated. The effect of a partially drained boundary is found to be insignificant on the dynamic shear band propagation because of the rapid rate of applied loading and low permeability of the clay. Using the finer mesh results in slightly narrower shear bands; nonetheless, the results manifest convergency through the mesh refinement in terms of the overall shape of shear banding and stress–strain relations. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Micromechanical analysis of failure propagation in frictional granular materials

The extent to which the evolution of instabilities and failure across multiple length scales can be reproduced with the aid of a bifurcation analysis is examined. We adopt an elastoplastic micropolar constitutive model, recently developed for dense cohesionless granular materials within the framework of thermomicromechanics. The internal variables and their evolution laws are conceived from a direct consideration of the dissipative mechanism of force chain buckling. The resulting constitutive law is cast entirely in terms of the particle scale properties. It thus presents a unique opportunity to test the potential of micromechanical continuum formulations to reproduce key stages in the deformation history: the development of material instabilities and failure following an initially homogeneous deformation. Progression of failure, initiating from frictional sliding and rolling at contacts, followed by the buckling of force chains, through to macroscopic strain softening and shear banding, is reproduced. Bifurcation point, marking the onset of shear banding, occurred shortly after the peak stress ratio. A wide range of material parameters was examined to show the effect of particle scale properties on the progression of failure. Model predictions on the thickness and angle of inclination of the shear band and the structural evolution inside the band, namely the latitudinal distribution of particle rotations and the angular distributions of contacts and the normal contact forces, are consistent with observations from numerical simulations and experiments. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

含液各向异性多孔介质应变局部化分析

工程中的含液多孔介质如饱和或非饱和岩土材料往往具有各向异性特性。采用Rudnicki建立的针对岩土材料的各向异性本构模型,对轴对称压缩试验中的含液多孔介质骨架的各向异性力学行为进行了分析;基于不连续分叉理论,导出了静态非渗流条件下处于轴对称应力状态的含液多孔介质应变局部化发生的临界模量、剪切带方向以及不连续速度矢量的显式表达式,在此基础上计算并讨论了材料参数变化和孔隙液体存在对各向异性多孔介质应变局部化的影响。     

冻土-混凝土接触面动剪强度研究

为了研究冻土-混凝土接触面的力学特性,开发了一种低温动荷载直剪仪,它是在普通直剪仪框架的基础上,安装了动力加载系统和温度控制系统。该装置能够保证在负温条件下对冻土进行动荷载直剪试验,从而测定冻土的动力学参数。为了研究寒区冻土与混凝土构筑物的相互作用,使用该仪器进行了一系列的多因素接触面动直剪试验,试验结果表明了冻土-混凝土接触面在动荷载作用下的行为特征,多因素对比试验则揭示了接触面动剪强度的影响因素和变化规律。     

土工织物-砂土界面的叠环式剪切试验

针对土工合成材料界面特性试验易受试验装置影响的特点,采用大型叠环式剪切仪进行土工织物与砂土的界面剪切试验。对比砂土本身、土工织物与砂土的两种剪切试验结果发现,土工织物-砂土剪切引起的叠环位移较小;叠环的水平位移变化规律与土体的剪胀性具有密切联系,土工织物限制了下剪切盒内土颗粒的运动,对达到峰值强度时的土体剪胀也具有抑制作用。由试验结果可知,筋-土界面的剪切带远小于剪切的影响范围,土工织物在界面剪切中的作用不能仅通过剪切带反映,还应考虑土工织物的屏蔽作用和对于土体剪切带形成的影响。