Palaeoecological,archaeological and historical data and the making of Devon landscapes. I. The Blackdown Hills

This paper presents the first systematic study of the vegetation history of a range of low hills in SW England, UK, lying between more researched fenlands and uplands. After the palaeoecological sites were located bespoke archaeological, historical and documentary studies of the surrounding landscape were undertaken specifically to inform palynological interpretation at each site. The region has a distinctive archaeology with late Mesolithic tool scatters, some evidence of early Neolithic agriculture, many Bronze Age funerary monuments and Romano‐British iron‐working. Historical studies have suggested that the present landscape pattern is largely early Medieval. However, the pollen evidence suggests a significantly different Holocene vegetation history in comparison with other areas in lowland England, with evidence of incomplete forest clearance in later‐Prehistory (Bronze?Iron Age). Woodland persistence on steep, but poorly drained, slopes, was probably due to the unsuitability of these areas for mixed farming. Instead they may have been under woodland management (e.g. coppicing) associated with the iron‐working industry. Data from two of the sites also suggest that later Iron Age and Romano‐British impact may have been geographically restricted. The documented Medieval land management that maintained the patchwork of small fields, woods and heathlands had its origins in later Prehistory, but there is also evidence of landscape change in the 6th–9th centuries AD. We conclude that the Blackdown Hills area was one of many ‘distinctive subregions’, which due to a combination of edaphic, topographic and cultural factors could qualify as an eco‐cultural region or ‘pays’. It is argued that the use of such eco‐culturally distinctive regions or pays can provide a spatial and archaeological framework for palaeoecology, which has implications for landscape research, designation and heritage management.     

中国全新世人群两性身高差异演变初析

两性身高差异对了解同一人群内两性间体质、生存策略及食谱构成等方面的异同具有重要意义。目前, 中国全新世人群两性身高差异的分布状况及其演变过程尚不明确。本研究收集51组古代人群股骨最大长数据, 选取合适公式重建各人群的男、女平均身高并计算不同时代人群的两性身高差异指数, 探析中国古代人群两性身高差异的演变特征。结果显示: 两性股骨最大长差异在新石器至铁器阶段呈增大趋势; 男、女平均身高在新石器至青铜阶段显著降低, 但在青铜至铁器阶段无明显变化; 两性身高差异从新石器至青铜阶段显著增大, 但在青铜至铁器阶段无明显变化。在新石器至青铜阶段, 中国人群两性平均身高的降低可能与生存压力的增大和下肢功能性需求的降低密切相关; 两性身高差异的增大表明女性平均身高下降程度要大于男性, 这可能与两性分工的强化和食物精细化有关。

     

Impoverishment of recent floodplain forest mollusc fauna in the lower Ohře River (Czech Republic) as a result of prehistoric human impact

Analyses of fossil mollusc successions have rarely been used to study the development of floodplain forests during the Holocene. The Oh?e River, located in a prehistorically settled chernozem area in the Czech Republic, is partly situated in Cretaceous marlstones, yielding sediments suitable for fossilization directly in floodplain deposits. We analysed five fossil mollusc successions situated in the lower stretch of the Oh?e River and compared the results with recent mollusc assemblages studied along the entire 256 km of the river. Fossil samples were composed mostly of open‐country species throughout the Holocene or the whole preserved succession. Only some samples also contained woodland assemblages, but these were always greatly impoverished, with a very low frequency of strictly woodland species. Although the natural‐looking appearance of the present‐day floodplain forests of the lower river stretch has resulted in its being declared a nature reserve, modern floodplain forest mollusc assemblages there are also impoverished. This reduction in the distribution of strictly woodland species compared with modern assemblages in the upper stretch of the river seems to be the result of an ancient human settlement and continuous disturbances of the floodplain forest development since the Neolithic. Thus, fully developed floodplain forest assemblages occur recently only in the upper non‐impacted stretch of the river. Based on the studied fossil successions we can conclude that the lower Oh?e River floodplain was probably a mosaic of open and disturbed forest habitats throughout the Holocene. This area is part of a central European landscape island, where forests probably never fully developed and open patches from the early Holocene continually developed into an agricultural landscape.     

Quaternary stratigraphy and geoarchaeology of the colorado and concho rivers,west texas

Geoarchaeological investigations in an area surrounding the confluence of the upper Colorado and Concho Rivers, Edwards Plateau of West Texas, have produced a detailed landscape evolution model which provides a framework for discussion of the influences of geomorphic processes on the development, preservation, and visibility of the archaeological record. Field mapping within the study area has differentiated six allostrati-graphic units of fluvial origin in both valleys, as well as extensive eolian sand sheets along the Colorado River. Early to middle Pleistocene terrace remnants cap many upland areas, whereas two distinct late Pleistocene terrace surfaces are widespread within the study area at somewhat lower elevations. Fluvial activity during the time period of human occupation is represented by an extensive Holocene terrace and underlying valley fill, which is up to 11 m in thickness. Valley fill sediments can be subdivided into allostratigraphic units of early to middle Holocene (ca. 10,000–5000 yr B.P.) and late Holocene age (ca. 4600–1000 yr B.P.), which are separated by a buried soil profile. The modern incised channels and very narrow floodplains represent the last millennium. Eolian sand sheets of early to middle Holocene age overlie limestone- and shale-dominated uplands, Pleistocene terraces, and in some cases the Holocene valley fill along the Colorado River. Pleistocene terraces have been stable features in the landscape and available for settlement through the time period of human occupation. Archaeological materials of all ages occur at the surface, and the record preserved in individual sites range from that associated with discrete periods of activity to longer-term palimpsests that represent repeated use over millennia. Sites within early to middle Holocene and late Holocene fills represent short-term utilization of constructional floodplains during the Paleoindian through early Archaic and middle to late Archaic time periods respectively. By contrast, those that occur along the buried soil profile developed in the early to middle Holocene fill record middle to late Archaic cultural activity on stable terrace surfaces, and represent relatively discrete periods of activity to longer-term palimpsests that represent repeated use over the 3000–4000 years of subaerial exposure. Late Prehistoric sites occur as palimpsests on soils developed in late Holocene alluvium or stratified within modern floodplain facies. Paleoindian through Late Prehistoric sites occur stratified within eolian sand sheets or along the unconformity with subjacent fluvial deposits. The landscape evolution model from the upper Colorado and Concho Rivers is similar to that developed for other major valley axes of the Edwards Plateau. This model may be regionally applicable, and can be used to interpret the geomorphic setting and natural formation processes for already known sites, as well as provide an organizational framework for systematic surface and subsurface survey for new archaeological records. 0 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Placer Tin Ores from Mt. Cer,West Serbia,and Their Potential Exploitation during the Bronze Age

Tin is a rare metal that is essential for making bronze, the defining technology of the Bronze Age. The source(s) of tin for Aegean bronze is undetermined but several small Bronze Age tin mines have been documented in the circum‐Aegean region. The discovery of Bronze Age archaeological sites in West Serbia near a tin placer deposit on the flanks of Mt. Cer led to an investigation of this site as a potential additional Bronze Age tin mine in the region. Geochemical prospecting of stream sediments flowing from Mt. Cer allowed for categorization of streams based on relative tin grade. Tin grade is highest in the Milinska River, a likely combination of a broad catchment area with multiple ore‐bearing tributaries, and a topographic profile that favors the accumulation of placer deposits. A survey of cornfields along the southern pluton margin discovered archaeological sites spanning the Neolithic to the Iron Age. Unlike older and younger sites, those of the Bronze Age were found only along the Milinska and Cernica Rivers where placer tin grades are highest, but appear to be absent where tin is scarce or absent. This suggests that these sites were associated with the exploitation of the tin ore.     

Bronze-early iron age environment of the Iman River Basin,Russian far east

Three archaeological sites of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages were investigated using palynological methods. To interpret the fossil spectra more accurately, recent pollen from alluvium, surface soil and cultural layers within modern villages were also studied in the area. During the time interval when the ancient cultural layers accumulated, thinned-out birch forests were replaced by mixed coniferous and broad-leaved trees. This might have been caused by climatic transition which possibly influenced the changing cultural traditions within the area. The climatic transition also includes a change in humidity. The wettest stages are recorded by pollen data during the transition period between the Bronze and Early Iron Age. This corresponds to the Subboreal/Subatlantic boundary within the European Holocene (around 2500 yr B.P.). © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Palynology,sedimentology and palaeoecology of the late Holocene Dead Sea

Palynological and sedimentological studies were performed at two Holocene profiles in erosion gullies (Ze’elim and Ein Feshkha) which dissect the retreating western shore of the Dead Sea. The aim of the project was to analyse possible links between climate, lithology, and vegetation development. The section in Ze’elim shows both lacustrine and fluvial sediments, whereas sedimentation at Ein Feshkha is predominantly lacustrine. The Ze’elim profile, previously used for paleo-lake reconstruction provides an opportunity to compare climate triggered lake levels as paleo-hydrological indicators and vegetation history by use of palynology. The vegetation development in Ze’elim and Ein Feshkha is influenced by both climate and human impact. The pollen record of Ze’elim begins in the Pottery Neolithic, the section of Ein Feshkha in the Late Bronze Age, both records end in the Middle Ages. The Ze’elim section is characterized by sedimentary hiati between the beginning of the Chalcolithic Period until the Middle Bronze Age and within the Late Bronze Age. Settlement periods during the Middle Bronze Age, Iron Age and Hellenistic–Roman–Byzantine Period are indicated by high values of anthropogenic indicators and/or Mediterranean trees. Collapses of agriculture, which can be related to climate effects, are evident during the Late Bronze Age, during the Iron Age and at the end of the Byzantine Period when the lake level curve indicates arid conditions. A comparison of the two pollen records, from different environments, illustrates a more prominent influence of Mediterranean vegetation and cultivated plants in the pollen diagram of Ein Feshkha. The southern Dead Sea region (at the desert fringe) is more vulnerable to regional climate change.     

Bronze Age at Lake Bourget (NW Alps, France): Vegetation, human impact and climatic change

Pollen analyses of three sediment cores performed on the archaeological lake dwellings of Chindrieux and Tresserve (Savoie, France), on the eastern shore of Lake Bourget, enable the reconstruction of vegetation history and human impact during the Bronze Age. Results show a good correlation between lake-level fluctuations and the evolution of anthropogenic indicators. The end of the Neolithic period and the early Bronze Age are characterised by a discreet occupation of the Lake Bourget surroundings, in spite of a warmer climatic condition. The middle Bronze Age, contemporaneous with wetter and cooler conditions, is related to a decrease in pollen of cultivated plants and weed. Farming activities reappear in the late Bronze Age and human impact increases suddenly at the very end of the late Bronze Age. Three anthropogenic phases are clearly visible: a short decrease in anthropogenic indicators and a high lake-level phase occur in the middle of this period of intense farming development. A new decrease in human impact appears at the beginning of the Iron Age.     

榆林地区全新世聚落时空变化与人地关系

在对榆林地区仰韶时期至西周聚落遗址时空分布及考古资料分析的基础上,探讨了区内聚落分布同环境变化的关系。研究表明,本区全新世气候具有较大幅度的变化历史,与其相应的人类活动同样具有强烈的兴衰变化特点,表明气候变化对人类活动产生了重要影响。但在5～4kaB.P.前后,在气温和降水有所降低的背景下,人类文化却得到进一步发展,进入鼎盛时期,说明除了当时的环境仍较为适宜外,社会发展自身规律对人类文化发展也有重要影响。研究表明,本区全新世人类文化发展可以划分为3个阶段: 自仰韶文化半坡类型时期开始,榆林地区的气候处于全新世鼎盛期,吸引南来移民在此定居,6.5～4.5kaB.P.的约2000年间形成的遗址有127处;  龙山前期气候较为适宜,4kaB.P.后气候转向干凉,但由于环境条件仍然较为适宜和人类社会自身发展规律的影响,在 4.5～3.7kaB.P.仅800年的时间形成的遗址多达740处,分布范围有所扩大;  商代和西周时期,由于气候的进一步干凉化,对人类文化发展产生了严重的负面影响,使得该时期遗址数量大幅减少至77处,表明当时人口的显著减少和社会繁荣程度的明显退步,且畜牧业在经济中的比重有所增加。     

The Alluvial Geoarchaeology of the Sanyangzhuang Site on the Yellow River Floodplain,Henan Province,China

The Sanyangzhuang site, Henan Province, China, has a 12‐m‐deep stratigraphic sequence with remains from the Tang (A.D. 618–907), late Western Han (ca. 140 B.C.–A.D. 23), Warring States (475–221 B.C.), Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age (ca. 5000–1500 B.C.), Middle Holocene, and Early Holocene times. All of the paleosols are deeply buried. We investigate four issues relevant to the archaeology of the lower Yellow River Valley. First, we confirm that the Yellow River flowed north toward Bohai Bay throughout most of the Holocene. Second, we expand understanding of Holocene paleoenvironments. Long episodes of landscape stability punctuated by brief periods of Yellow River flooding represent the dominant environmental pattern. Third, we investigate how the complex relationships between climate, culture, and the environment affect Yellow River flooding, which in turn shapes Chinese civilization and history. Flooding in late Western Han times affected a vast area of north‐central China; this catastrophe contributed to the downfall of the late Western Han Dynasty. Finally, this research sheds light on the role of Yellow River alluviation in site burial and preservation. Rapid alluviation in the region has buried many archaeological sites. Settlement pattern research needs to take seriously the limitations placed on site visibility in quickly aggrading floodplains. However, gentle alluviation has also preserved settlements and entire landscapes providing unparalleled opportunities to explore the archaeological and historical record of the lower Yellow River Valley.     

Prehistoric shepherds and caves in the Trieste Karst (Northeastern Italy)

One of the basic problems in the prehistoric studies of the Trieste Karst (northeastern Italy) is that of understanding the use of the numerous caves, which represent the only sites known from Palaeolithic to Middle Bronze Age. Recent sedimentological and soil micromorphological analyses add new data to the traditional archaeological ones. In our opinion, the data should be approached from other than an exclusively chronotypological point of view. The inferences of the data indicate that certain areas of four caves were used for stabling animals, and that this model of site use may be extended to most of the Karst cave sites for the period from the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Charcoal analysis and Holocene vegetation history in southern Syria

Charcoal analysis of three archaeological sites in southern Syria in the vicinity of the Jebel al Arab (formerly Jebel Druze) indicates that during the Early Bronze Age an association consisting predominately of Pistacia, deciduous oak and almond was exploited. During the Middle Bronze Age these taxa diminish and are partially replaced by more steppic species or introduced wood such as olive. During the Roman period evergreen oak appeared in the region and gradually replaced the deciduous oak which is now restricted to a small area. The gradual replacement of deciduous oaks by evergreen oaks has been observed in other areas of the Mediterranean basin during the Holocene. Conifer charcoal such as pine and cedar is present on the sites, but it is not clear whether these were local or imported from farther away, for example, the Lebanese highlands. During the Middle Bronze Age olive wood was also used as combustible but here also its exact origin is not known.     

The evolution of settlement patterns in the eastern Oman from the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (6000–2000 BC)

The region of eastern Oman (called Ja’alan) is often compared to the Arabian deserts, which are typically arid and depopulated areas. Today, this geographical definition is correct: the geographic and climatic conditions (low precipitation, pronounced dryness, high evaporation) indicate an arid region, and the area is sparsely populated. Between the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age, the geographic and climatic conditions did not change much, and were slightly more humid than at present. Although the term “green Ja’alan” does not describe this area, we observe that the region was occupied by a quite substantial population. Since 1985, surveys and excavations have been carried out and more than 4000 archeological structures are now listed. The spatial distribution of these sites differs for each period, from Neolithic seasonal camps to oasian settlements of the Early Bronze Age.     

The impact of fluvial processes and landscape evolution on archaeological sites and settlement patterns along the San Xavier reach of the Santa Cruz River,Arizona

The Santa Cruz arroyo in the Tucson Basin, Arizona, has undergone major environmental changes over the last 8000 years. the Holocene stratigraphy along a 15 km segment of the arroyo, known as the San Xavier reach, which traverses the San Xavier Indian Reservation was investigated in detail. the Holocene alluvial sequence reveals that aggradation occurred until 8000 yr B.P. within a braided stream, was followed by a major period of channel erosion and widening from 8000 to 5500 yr B.P., which, in turn, was followed by vertical aggradation of the floodplain and five short periods of channel cutting. Broad climatic changes are correlated with major changes in the fluvial regime and landscape. However, the cycles of arroyo cutting and filling, during the semiarid climate of the last 2500 years, were probably the result of the creation of unstable internal geomorphic conditions, flooding, and human impacts on the floodplain. the alluvial history of the San Xavier reach has had a pronounced effect on the preservation and completeness of the archaeological record. Periods of erosion have created absences or gaps in the archaeological record and deep burial has removed some of the preserved archaeological remains from view. Environmental changes on the floodplain also influenced late prehistoric Hohokam settlement and subsistence patterns in the San Xavier region.     

Geophysical Surveys in the Jebel Hamrat Fidan,Jordan

The Jebel (Jebel is mountain in Arabic) Hamrat Fidan marks the “gateway” to the Feinan district of southern Jordan—one of the largest sources of copper during the prehistoric and Early Bronze Ages in the eastern Mediterranean. Preliminary excavations and surveys at sites along the Wadi Fidan have revealed a long history of settled occupation extending from the Pre‐Pottery Neolithic (ca. 6,500 B.C.) to early medieval times. Because of this long history of occupation, and the fact that this area was a regional center for the production of copper, the study of this area is important for understanding early metallurgy, craft specialization, and social evolution. During the summer of 1997, geophysical investigations at a series of Neolithic and Bronze Age sites identified specific areas within Wadi Fidan for future intensive excavations. Three geophysical techniques (electromagnetic induction, ground‐penetrating radar, and magnetometry) were used to help locate buried architectural and industrial features remaining from early mining and metallurgical operations, including copper ore bodies or voids. Geophysics was not used at the actual mining sites because of scheduling constraints; however, geophysics did delineate buried stone walls at three distinct Wadi Fidan sites. Magnetometry and ground penetrating radar provided little useful information. Buried stone walls were apparently “masked” by numerous magnetic stones on the ground surface making magnetometry useless. Reflections from known strata demonstrated that radar penetrated the ground adequately; however, known shallowly buried walls were not recognizable. Electromagnetic induction produced maps of linear and rectilinear features that suggested spatial distribution of widespread buried stone walls suitable for future excavation. A significant and unexpected finding was that electromagnetic induction proved capable of delineating buried stone walls. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

First Reconstruction of the Habitat of Hunter-Gatherers in the Mamakan Archaeological Area in the Middle Holocene,Patom Highlands

The first radiocarbon-dated pollen record from the Mamakan section is presented. This record has become the basis for the reconstruction of the vegetation and climate of the Middle Holocene in the Mamakan archaeological area, where a number of well-known Siberian archaeological sites of the Late Mesolithic–Middle Bronze period are located. Reconstructions suggest that sparse spruce and larch stands dominated in the area between 6450 and 6150 cal BP. Later, from 6150 to 4700 cal BP, Scots pine began to spread in a warmer climate than before, following the general trend of its expansion in the southern part of Eastern Siberia. A cooler climate than previously with increased soil and air humidity occurred in the Mamakan region from 4700 to 3840 cal BP, causing the regional expansion of Siberian pine. The time interval from 3840 to 3600 cal BP was characterized by the significant development of pine, spruce, and larch forests. On the basis of the age model, we assume that, in the lower reaches of the Vitim River and, probably, in other mountain regions north of Lake Baikal, Scots pine spread about 600 years later than in the Cis-Baikal region and east of the lake. This transition from dark coniferous-taiga to light coniferous-taiga with a predomination of Scots pine signifies the most fundamental change in vegetation of the Baikal region in the Holocene. This is often discussed as one of the possible causes of the Middle Neolithic cultural hiatus (6660–6060 cal BP), which has been documented in the archaeological records from different parts of this vast region. Reconstruction of vegetation in the Mamakan region suggests that the territory of the Nizhnii Vitim River has been favorable for humans during most of the hiatus recorded in the Cis-Baikal area and may have been considered as a refuge for populations of hunter-gatherers in the Middle Neolithic.

     

The environment of Upper Palaeolithic (Magdalenian and Azilian) hunters at Hauterive‐Champréveyres,Neuchâtel,Switzerland, interpreted from coleopteran remains

An excavation primarily intended to investigate the Bronze Age deposits at Hautrive‐Champréveyres, Neuchâtel, Switzerland, encountered beneath the Bronze Age levels a sequence of Late‐glacial sediments that were deposited between about 13000 yr BP and 11800 yr BP. Within these deposits Upper Palaeolithic hearths, bones and flint implements were found in a context that left no doubt that they accumulated on the actual living floors. Two separate cultures were involved; an earlier Magdalenian one overlain by a rather later Azilian assemblage. Coleoptera from the associated organic silts and sands provide detailed ecological and climatic information about the time when these people lived in the area. Radiocarbon dates indicate that the Magdalenians lived in the area at about 13000 yr BP. The Coleoptera show that the mean July temperature at this time was about 9°C and mean temperature of the coldest month was about −25°C. The landscape was bare of trees with an open patchy vegetation. Shortly after the area was abandoned by the Magdalenian hunters, the climate became suddenly warmer and mean July temperatures rose abruptly to at least 16°C and winter temperatures rose to levels not much different from those of the present day. There is evidence that at this time, intense slope instability and mud flows may have rendered the locality unsuitable for human occupation. About seven centuries after the episode of sudden climatic warming, namely at about 12300 yr BP, palaeolithic Azilian hunters occupied the area at a time when the climate was thoroughly temperate and the landscape was clothed in birch and willow woodland. This was gradually replaced by pine forest at the top of the sequence and Late‐glacial deposition ceased by about 11800 yr BP. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Holocene alluviation and land-use change on Callaly Moor,Northumberland, England

Archaeological survey and palaeoenvironmental investigations in Coe Burn, Callaly Moor, Northumberland, have examined the chronology and nature of prehistoric and historic land-use change in a small upland river catchment. These studies have revealed an intensively used landscape with evidence of late Neolithic to Bronze Age, medieval and post-medieval land use and settlement. Two episodes of valley floor alluviation are identified and dated to the middle-late Bronze Age and post-medieval periods. Magnetic mineral and geochemical analyses of fine sediments from the older alluvial fill show it to contain a high proportion of topsoil, which is believed to have been produced by soil erosion resulting from Bronze Age tree clearance and cultivation. Deposition of the younger alluvial fill (post AD 1500) was associated with the inwash of relatively unweathered bedrock generated by coal mining in the catchment. It is demonstrated that by integrating archaeological field survey with off-site palaeoenvironmental investigations a much fuller picture of human activity and land-use change has emerged than otherwise would have been the case. Studies of this type may be particularly useful in other upland river catchments where archaeological survival is limited or poor.     

Optically stimulated luminescence ages of the Hengyu site and their implications for anthropogenic activities in the Fuzhou Basin,South China

The chronologies of few Neolithic sites in the lower reaches of the Min River of China have been well investigated for the middle to late Holocene. In this study, the Hengyu Neolithic site in Fujian Province, South China, which has significant archaeological remains, was dated using blue‐stimulated optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon (AMS¹⁴C) techniques. The results, comprising nine OSL and three AMS¹⁴C ages through the Neolithic sequence, provide new evidence towards understanding the relationship between environmental evolution and human activities in the middle to late Holocene in the Fuzhou Basin and coastal areas of South China. The ages of the site deposits vary from 6.83 to 1.67 ka and can be divided into two main phases: the Keqiutou–Tanshishan culture period and the Bronze culture period. In contrast, the persistent periods of ancient human activities at the Hengyu site seem to correspond to regional sea‐level changes and the East Asian winter monsoon as a secondary factor, which can affect human activities through sea‐level impacts. The warm and high sea level conditions provided a liveable environment for the ancient humans of Fujian and even South China. The ages of two building column bases are linked to the early stage of the Han dynasty, suggesting a potentially favourable habitation environment; that is, ancient humans occupied and settled this area for the long term within this time period, which is consistent with sea‐level changes and palynology records. Copyright © 2019 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ice‐borne prehistoric finds in the Swiss Alps reflect Holocene glacier fluctuations

During the hot summer of 2003, reduction of an ice field in the Swiss Alps (Schnidejoch) uncovered spectacular archaeological hunting gear, fur, leather and woollen clothing and tools from four distinct windows of time: Neolithic Age (4900 to 4450 cal. yr BP), early Bronze Age (4100–3650 cal. yr BP), Roman Age (1st–3rd century AD), and Medieval times (8–9th century AD and 14–15th century AD). Transalpine routes connecting northern Italy with the northern Alps during these slots is consistent with late Holocene maximum glacier retreat. The age cohorts of the artefacts are separated which is indicative of glacier advances when the route was difficult and not used for transit. The preservation of Neolithic leather indicates permanent ice cover at that site from ca. 4900 cal. yr BP until AD 2003, implying that the ice cover was smaller in 2003 than at any time during the last 5000 years. Current glacier retreat is unprecedented since at least that time. This is highly significant regarding the interpretation of the recent warming and the rapid loss of ice in the Alps. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.