Dominant cloud microphysical processes of a torrential rainfall event in Sichuan,China

High-resolution numerical simulation data of a rainstorm triggering debris flow in Sichuan Province of China simulated by the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) Model were used to study the dominant cloud microphysical processes of the torrential rainfall. The results showed that: (1) In the strong precipitation period, particle sizes of all hydrometeors increased, and mean-mass diameters of graupel increased the most significantly, as compared with those in the weak precipitation period; (2) The terminal velocity of raindrops was the strongest among all hydrometeors, followed by graupel’s, which was much smaller than that of raindrops. Differences between various hydrometeors’ terminal velocities in the strong precipitation period were larger than those in the weak precipitation period, which favored relative motion, collection interaction and transformation between the particles. Absolute terminal velocity values of raindrops and graupel were significantly greater than those of air upward velocity, and the stronger the precipitation was, the greater the differences between them were; (3) The orders of magnitudes of the various hydrometeors’ sources and sinks in the strong precipitation period were larger than those in the weak precipitation period, causing a difference in the intensity of precipitation. Water vapor, cloud water, raindrops, graupel and their exchange processes played a major role in the production of the torrential rainfall, and there were two main processes via which raindrops were generated: abundant water vapor condensed into cloud water and, on the one hand, accretion of cloud water by rain water formed rain water, while on the other hand, accretion of cloud water by graupel formed graupel, and then the melting of graupel formed rain water.     

Effects of vertical wind shear, radiation and ice microphysics on precipitation efficiency during a torrential rainfall event in China

The effects of vertical wind shear, radiation and ice microphysics on precipitation efficiency （PE） were investigated through analysis of modeling data of a torrential rainfall event over Jinan, China during July 2007. Vertical wind shear affected PE by changing the kinetic energy conversion between the mean and perturbation circulations. Clou~radiation interaction impacted upon PE, but the relationship related to cloud radiative effects on PE was not statistically significant. The reduction in deposition processes as- sociated with the removal of ice microphysics suppressed efficiency. The relationships related to effects of vertical wind shear, radiation and ice clouds on PEs defined in cloud and surface rainfall budgets were more statistically significant than that defined in the rain microphysical budget.     

不同云微物理方案对“7.21”特大暴雨模拟的对比试验

利用中尺度数值模式WRF v3.5.1中的17种不同云微物理过程参数化方案,对2012年7月21—22日北京特大暴雨过程进行了对比试验。模拟结果表明:不同云微物理方案对不同量级降水的模拟效果各有优势。NSSL 1-momlfo方案对中雨和大暴雨两个等级降水的模拟效果最好,降水中心值最接近实况;Eta(Ferrier)和Kessler方案分别对大雨和暴雨等级降水的模拟效果最好。总体上,能够较好地模拟出本次特大暴雨过程的方案依次为:NSSL 1-mom、NSSL 1-momlfo和Milbrandt 2-mom方案,而WDM6方案的模拟效果最差。云中水成物演变特征表明,模拟较好的方案中液态水、云冰和霰的含量较多,且随时间演变与地面降水强度的变化相一致。另外,模拟较好的方案中冰相粒子多,过冷水的范围大、含量高,有利于各相态粒子相互转化,促进冰相过程发展,致使降水量增多。     

不同云方案对祁连山降水模拟的影响

应用MM5中尺度模式,选用4种不同云微物理方案(Dudhia简单冰相方案、Reisner混合相方案、Reisner2霰方案和Schultz微物理方案),对2002年7月12-13日祁连山区降水过程进行了数值模拟试验。模拟结果的对比分析表明,不同云微物理方案在祁连山区降水的模拟中对降水落区的模拟均偏南;除Reisner2霰方案外,其他3种方案对降水中心落点的模拟影响不大,降水中心强度对云微物理方案不敏感;显式降水和参数化降水对云微物理方案有不同程度的依赖性;云微物理过程通过影响动力条件发生发展的时间和强度,来影响强降水发生的时间和强度。通过各云微物理参数的分析发现,各物理过程中微物理参数参与降水的过程不同:对Dudhia简单冰相方案来说,雨水和云水是形成降水的主要过程;Reisner混合相方案中降水的形成主要是由于雨水、云水、雪和霰的碰并过程,冰晶的碰并相对较弱;在Reisner2霰方案中,雨水、云水、冰晶、雪和霰均参与碰并碰冻过程;Schultz微物理方案中冰晶、雪和霰的碰并过程更为重要。     

Diagnosis and numerical simulation of a torrential precipitation event in Catalonia (Spain)

Summary A torrential precipitation event occurred in Catalonia (northeastern part of Spain) during 9 and 10 October 1994. More than 400mm were registered in the south of Catalonia. A diagnostic study shows that most of the ingredients to produce heavy rain (large scale upward vertical motion, instability, high moisture content in all the troposphere) were present over the Spanish coast and western Mediterranean. Mesoscale triggering mechanisms have been associated with the orographic forcing, not only through physical lifting of moist air by the coastal mountains, but also by the redistribution of the surface pressure field induced by the Atlas and Pyrenees ranges. A numerical simulation of the event using a meso- model has been performed. The model forecasts qualitatively well the rainfall distribution but underestimates the maximum rainfalls. The effects of the orography and the evaporation from the sea have been also studied. The simulations have shown that the action of the orography is decisive for the rainfall, pressure and wind distrbutions over the Spanish coast and the western Mediterranean. The isolated action of the evaporation turns to be much less important. However the combined effect of orography and evaporation is the most important factor in the areas where the greatest amount of rainfall occurred.With 26 Figures     

广西东南部“海葵”残涡特大暴雨成因初探

利用各种常规气象资料、ERA5再分析资料等对2023年9月“海葵”残涡造成广西东南部特大暴雨的成因进行分析。结果表明：(1)华南地区处于南亚高压东南侧的辐散区,500 hPa副热带高压减弱东退,西风槽东移引导弱冷空气南下,有利于“海葵”残涡长时间维持在广西东南部上空,冷暖空气交汇激发对流,产生特大暴雨。(2)低层季风气流加强,在广西东南部有西南风和东南风的辐合,充足的水汽输送到“海葵”残涡东侧堆积,中高层辐散、低层辐合的良好配置促进了上升运动发展,为特大暴雨的发生提供有利条件。(3)对流单体后向传播形成“列车效应”,回波质心低,抬升凝结高度低,以高效率的暖云降水为主,超低空急流对强降水的出现具有一定的指示作用。     

Cloud microphysical and precipitation responses to a large-scale forcing in the tropical deep convective regime

Summary Cloud microphysical and precipitation responses to a large-scale forcing in the tropical deep convective regime are investigated based on hourly zonally-averaged, vertically-integrated simulation data from a two-dimensional coupled ocean-cloud resolving atmosphere model. The model is forced by the large-scale vertical velocity and zonal wind observed and derived from TOGA COARE for a 50-day period. The accretion of cloud water by graupel induces growth of graupel that enhances raindrops through its melting during a weak-forcing period, whereas the large deposition rate of vapor associated with a large upper-tropospheric upward motion causes growth of snow from the conversion of cloud ice and enhancement of graupel from the accretion of snow during a strong-forcing period. The local changes of raindrops and graupel switch from the negative to positive values as the forcing strengthens in the weak-forcing case, whereas the variations of cloud hydrometeors are not sensitive to the strength of the forcing in the strong-forcing case. Phase analysis indicates that cloud water leads the surface rain rate by 1 hour. The surface rain rate can be calculated based on the conservation of vapor and cloud hydrometeors and the budget of raindrops. The vapor source and local changes of cloud hydrometeors could have impacts in the calculation of the surface rain rate. The vapor source determines the surface rain rate in the strong-forcing case whereas the cloud variations could become important in the weak-forcing case. In the budget of raindrops, the sum of the collection of cloud water by raindrops, the melting of graupel, and the evaporation of raindrops determines the surface rain rate in the strong-forcing case whereas the other rain-related microphysical processes become important in the weak-forcing case.     

鲁西北持续性暴雨非地转湿Q矢量分析

利用常规观测资料、NECP/NCAR提供的1°×1°FNL全球再分析资料,对2012年鲁西北一次持续性暴雨进行了湿Q矢量方法诊断分析。结果表明：此次持续暴雨出现在有利的环流背景下,降水区域集中并有明显的中尺度特征,湿Q矢量方法是分析强降水落区很好的工具;925～850 hPa湿Q矢量散度与强降水落区有较好的对应关系,但暴雨并不总是出现在湿Q矢量散度负值区中心,有时出现在湿Q矢量散度梯度大的负值区一侧;700 hPa湿Q矢量涡度正值中心与散度负值重叠的区域是中尺度低值系统发展有利的区域,与未来6～12 h暴雨落区有很好的对应;湿Q矢量锋生函数差值预报强降水落区明显优于锋生函数。     

Surface rainfall and cloud budgets associated with mei-yu torrential rainfall over eastern China during June 2011

Surface rainfall and cloud budgets associated with three heavy rainfall events that occurred over eastern China during the mei-yu season in June 2011 were analyzed using 2D cumulus ensemble model simulation data.Model domain mean rainfall showed three peaks in response to three prescribed ascending motion maxima,primarily through the mean moisture convergence during the torrential rainfall period.Prescribed ascending motion throughout the troposphere produced strong convective rainfall during the first （9 June） and third （17-18 June） rainfall events,whereas strong prescribed ascending motion in the mid and upper troposphere and weak subsidence near the surface generated equally important stratiform and convective rainfall during the second rainfall event （14 June）.The analysis of surface rainfall budgets reveals that convective rainfall was associated with atmospheric drying during the first event and moisture convergence during the third event.Both stratiform and convective rainfall responded primarily to moisture convergence during the second event.An analysis of grid data shows that the first and third mean rainfall maxima had smaller horizontal scales of the precipitation system than the second.     

Mesoscale dynamics and its application in torrential rainfall systems in China

Progress over the past decade in understanding moisture-driven dynamics and torrential rain storms in China is reviewed in this paper. First, advances in incorporating moisture effects more realistically into theory are described, including the development of a new parameter, generalized moist potential vorticity(GMPV) and an improved moist ageostrophic Q vector(Qum). Advances in vorticity dynamics are also described, including the adoption of a "parcel dynamic" approach to investigate the development of the vertical vorticity of an air parcel; a novel theory of slantwise vorticity development, proposed because vorticity develops easily near steep isentropic surfaces; and the development of the convective vorticity vector(CVV)as an effective new tool. The significant progress in both frontal dynamics and wave dynamics is also summarized, including the geostrophic adjustment of initial unbalanced flow and the dual role of boundary layer friction in frontogenesis, as well as the interaction between topography and fronts, which indicate that topographic perturbations alter both frontogenesis and frontal structure. For atmospheric vortices, mixed wave/vortex dynamics has been extended to explain the propagation of spiral rainbands and the development of dynamical instability in tropical cyclones. Finally, we review wave and basic flow interaction in torrential rainfall, for which it was necessary to extend existing theory from large-scale flows to mesoscale fields, enriching our knowledge of mesoscale atmospheric dynamics.     

Impact of precipitating ice on the simulation of a heavy rainfall event with advanced research WRF using two bulk microphysical schemes

In this study, the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model version 3.2 is used to examine the impact of precipitating ice and especially snow-graupel partitioning in the simulation of a heavy rainfall event over Chalkidiki peninsula in Northern Greece. This major precipitation event, associated with a case of cyclogenesis over the Aegean Sea, occurred on the 8th of October 2006 causing severe flooding and damage. Two widely used microphysical parameterizations, the Purdue Lin (PLIN) and WRF Single-Moment 6-class scheme (WSM6) are compared with available raingauge measurements over the complex topography of Chalkidiki. To further investigate the importance of snow and graupel relative mass content and the treatment of precipitating ice sedimentation velocity, two older versions of the WSM6 scheme were compiled and run with the current model. The verification results indicate that all simulations were found to match raingauge data more closely over the eastern mountainous Chalkidiki peninsula where maximum accumulations were observed. In other stations all schemes overestimate 24h accumulated rainfall except a station situated at the western part of the peninsula, where none of the simulations was able to reproduce observed rainfall. Graupel dominance in PLIN generates rapid precipitation fallout at the point of maximum predicted 24h accumulation. Similar behavior is shown in WSM6 from WRF version 2, but with significant less rainfall. Increasing snow amounts aloft, due to the unified treatment of precipitating ice in WSM6 from WRF version 3, modifies rain dynamics which decrease rainfall rates, but increases 24h accumulations. A sensitivity experiment where PLIN is used with snow accretion by graupel turned off, indicated that this process seems to be the most important factor controlling the differences in surface precipitation between PLIN and WSM6 from WRF version 3, determining the spatial and temporal distribution of this heavy precipitation event. The results also revealed that snow overestimation can lead to high rainfall accumulations, even though rain is more evenly distributed over the 24h period, deteriorating precipitation forecast.     

东北地区一次短时大暴雨β中尺度对流系统分析

为了探寻东北短历时暴雨的预报线索,利用自动站、卫星和常规气象观测资料相结合的方法,研究2006年8月10日最大1 h雨量达到90.8 mm(泰来,其中,后半小时降水82 mm)的东北中西部百年一遇短历时特大暴雨中尺度对流系统(MCS)发展过程,及其发生的天气尺度背景和中尺度环境与触发机制.通过红外卫星云图和高分辨率的可见光云图,分析MCS如何从一个γ中尺度发展为α中尺度对流复合体(MCC)的过程.分析表明,与6个市(县)半小时雨量超过33 mm相关联的MβCS分别发生在2个阶段,第1阶段在MCC形成之前,MβCS主要向东移动(最后合并成MCC),第2阶段,在MCC成熟阶段.MpCS出现在MCC的西南边缘,而且最强短历时暴雨就发生在这里.从分辨率更高的可见光云图上可以发现,有北、西两条积云线,它们交汇的地方MβCS强烈发展并产生暴雨.分析MCS加强和产生暴雨的原因表明:(1)暴雨发生前夕暴雨区域具有高温、高湿和对流性不稳定层结,并存在明显的对流有效位能增加、抬升凝结高度及自由对流高度降低的现象,有利于暴雨发生;(2)β中尺度云团之间的合并,使MCS迅速发展,产生暴雨;(3)北、西两条积云线分别与地面风场中的两条辐合线相对应,在它们交汇处的较强辐合导致β中尺度云团强烈发展产生暴雨.分析MCS在MCC西南方向传播的原因表明,两条辐合线的移动方向和速度决定了暴雨MCS的传播方向.另外,偏北气流的出现和新老云团的新陈代谢过程是触发暴雨的关键因素.上述分析结果也为短历时暴雨的预报提供了有用的线索.     

华北一次暴雨过程中潜热对中尺度系统和降水影响的数值研究

针对2005年7月22日的发生于华北的暴雨中尺度对流系统,在用中尺度ARPS模式数值模拟和分析云场、动力场以及微物理过程释放的潜热垂直分布和作用特征的基础上,通过改变主要微物理过程潜热做敏感性数值试验,研究和分析了潜热对云系发展演变、云系宏观动力场、水汽场、云场和降水的影响,总结出云暖区潜热的影响途径。结果表明,在对流云团中,5000 m以上微物理过程起加热作用,以下起冷却作用。不同物理过程潜热加热的云层高度不同:高层起加热作用的主要为水汽凝结、云冰初生和雪凝华增长、霰撞冻云水过程;中层起加热/冷却作用的主要为水汽凝结、霰/雹融化过程;低层雨水的蒸发过程起冷却作用。微物理过程潜热通过影响云系和降水发展过程、云系动力场,进而影响水汽场、云场和降水。忽略霰/雹融化潜热,相当于增加云系暖区潜热,促进了低层气旋性环流的形成,增强了低层动力场的辐合,使得低层辐合区增多、增强;中低层水汽通量辐合区增多、面积扩大,明显地促进了对流云系的发展,增大了含水量和覆盖范围,云系的降水量显著增加,强降水区覆盖范围扩大。即使减少20%的凝结潜热,云系的发展也受到极大抑制,没有气旋性环流生成,低层辐合区缩小、强度降低,水汽通量辐合区也同样缩小、强度降低,云系对流发展减弱、含水量降低,因此,降水量大为减小,降水范围也显著缩小。此外,微物理过程潜热还影响到此次中尺度对流系统发展演变过程,改变了云系的形态、影响到系统的移动和系统中对流云团的发展强度和分布情况。     

华南沿海2011年7月15—18日持续暴雨过程中的季风槽与中尺度对流系统相互作用

应用NCEP FNL再分析资料及位涡分离反演等方法,对华南沿海2011年7月15—18日持续暴雨过程中季风槽与中尺度对流系统的相互作用进行了研究,主要针对暴雨发生期间季风槽气旋性涡度向上发展的机理及其对季风槽维持发展和中尺度对流系统活动的影响进行分析。结果发现,季风槽的中尺度对流系统发展于弱斜压性环境中,大多在槽东西两端涡度中心区发展最强。南侧盛行的西南低空急流为对流反复发生提供了对流发展的“可维持性”条件,是对流得以组织发展成为中尺度对流系统的重要原因。涡度收支诊断表明,季风槽气旋性涡度生成主要由中尺度对流系统低层辐合引起。位涡分离反演结果证实,季风槽气旋性环流增强主要由与中尺度对流系统潜热加热相关的扰动位涡造成,并随着中尺度对流系统加热峰值高度升高而向上发展,是大尺度环流对中尺度对流系统潜热加热动力响应的结果。在季风槽东西两端,由于中尺度对流系统发展强烈且持续,具有更高的加热效率,引起的气旋性涡度向上发展最为明显。其结果可引起中尺度对流系统西南一侧向北非地转风发展,并在地转偏向力作用下增强西风,维持低空急流的发展,为对流反复发生提供条件。这些都说明季风槽大尺度环流与中尺度对流系统相互作用在中尺度对流系统和持续暴雨形成过程中有重要作用。     

Impact of 4DVAR assimilation of rainfall data on the simulation of mesoscale precipitation systems in a mei-yu heavy rainfall event

The multi-scale weather systems associated with a mei-yu front and the corresponding heavy precipitation during a particular heavy rainfall event that occurred on 4 5 July 2003 in east China were successfully simulated through rainfall assimilation using the PSU/NCAR non-hydrostatic, mesoscale, numerical model （MM5） and its four-dimensional, variational, data assimilation （4DVAR） system. For this case, the improvement of the process via the 4DVAR rainfall assimilation into the simulation of mesoscale precipitation systems is investigated. With the rainfall assimilation, the convection is triggered at the right location and time, and the evolution and spatial distribution of the mesoscale convective systems （MCSs） are also more correctly simulated. Through the interactions between MCSs and the weather systems at different scales, including the low-level jet and mei-yu front, the simulation of the entire mei-yu weather system is significantly improved, both during the data assimilation window and the subsequent 12-h period. The results suggest that the rainfall assimilation first provides positive impact at the convective scale and the influences are then propagated upscale to the meso- and sub-synoptic scales.
Through a set of sensitive experiments designed to evaluate the impact of different initial variables on the simulation of mei-yu heavy rainfall, it was found that the moisture field and meridional wind had the strongest effect during the convection initialization stage, however, after the convection was fully triggered, all of the variables at the initial condition seemed to have comparable importance.     

Numerical comparison study of cloud microphysical parameterization schemes for a moderate snowfall event in North China

Summary A moderate snowfall event in North China is simulated using the high-resolution mesoscale model MM5. A fourfold-nest experiment, with a minimum horizontal grid size of 2 km, is run. In order to study the cloud microphysics processes associated with the snowfall, two experiments were conducted in two inner domains, one using the Goddard scheme (Goddard experiment), and the other using the Reisner scheme (Reisner experiment). The analysis focused on the comparison of the cloud microphysics processes which occurred in the experiments. It is shown that there is no implicit precipitation of cumulus parameterization in the domain of grid scale 18 km. The snowfall distribution patterns in the experiments are slightly different, but the microphysical characteristics and processes may have considerable differences between the two experiments: (1) The water substances in the cloud have cloud water, cloud ice and snow, but no rainwater and graupel in the Goddard experiment. However, the water substances in the cloud have cloud ice, snow, and graupel, but no cloud water and rainwater in the Reisner experiment. (2) The cloud ice mixing ratios in the Goddard experiment are larger than those in the Reisner experiment. (3) In the Goddard experiment, the dominant cloud microphysical processes include the growth of cloud water by the condensation of supersaturated vapor, the depositional growth of cloud ice, the initiation of cloud ice, the accretion of cloud ice by snow, the accretion of cloud water by snow, the deposition growth of snow and the Bergeron process of cloud ice. In the Reisner experiment, the dominant cloud microphysical processes include the depositional growth of cloud ice, the conversion of cloud ice to snow, the deposition of snow, and the deposition growth of graupel. (4) There is only snowfall in the Goddard experiment. Meanwhile, there is ice fall, snow fall, and graupel in the Reisner experiment. But the ice fall and graupel in the Reisner experiment is very slight and can be ignored.     

华南沿海2011年7月15—18日持续暴雨过程中的季风槽与中尺度对流系统相互作用

应用NCEP FNL再分析资料及位涡分离反演等方法,对华南沿海2011年7月15—18日持续暴雨过程中季风槽与中尺度对流系统的相互作用进行了研究,主要针对暴雨发生期间季风槽气旋性涡度向上发展的机理及其对季风槽维持发展和中尺度对流系统活动的影响进行分析。结果发现,季风槽的中尺度对流系统发展于弱斜压性环境中,大多在槽东西两端涡度中心区发展最强。南侧盛行的西南低空急流为对流反复发生提供了对流发展的“可维持性”条件,是对流得以组织发展成为中尺度对流系统的重要原因。涡度收支诊断表明,季风槽气旋性涡度生成主要由中尺度对流系统低层辐合引起。位涡分离反演结果证实,季风槽气旋性环流增强主要由与中尺度对流系统潜热加热相关的扰动位涡造成,并随着中尺度对流系统加热峰值高度升高而向上发展,是大尺度环流对中尺度对流系统潜热加热动力响应的结果。在季风槽东西两端,由于中尺度对流系统发展强烈且持续,具有更高的加热效率,引起的气旋性涡度向上发展最为明显。其结果可引起中尺度对流系统西南一侧向北非地转风发展,并在地转偏向力作用下增强西风,维持低空急流的发展,为对流反复发生提供条件。这些都说明季风槽大尺度环流与中尺度对流系统相互作用在中尺度对流系统和持续暴雨形成过程中有重要作用。     

Numerical simulation of a heavy rainfall event in China during July 1998

Summary A detailed analysis associated with this case has been carried out (Zhao et al., 2001). In order to conduct further research on the meso-β scale system, which is the directly influencing system, the heavy rainfall that occurred in Wuhan (Station no.: 57494) and Huangshi (Station no.: 58407), Hubei Province during July 1998 are simulated using higher resolution and more complete initial data, after the large scale fields and rainfall areas have been simulated successfully. The simulation results indicate that there are meso-β scale weather systems which developed and dissipated near Wuhan and Huangshi during 1800 UTC 20 July to 0600 UTC 21 July and 1800 UTC 21 July to 0600 UTC 22 July in 1998, respectively. The life cycle of the meso-scale system is about 12 hours and its horizontal scale is from 100 to 200 km. These are characteristic of a typical meso-β scale system. By analyzing the vertical section of wind field and other physical variables during the mentioned-above two periods, it is found that horizontal convergence, ascending motion and positive vorticity of the middle and lower troposphere are strengthened during the heavy rainfall periods near the above mentioned two places. In addition, the wind disturbance in middle and lower troposphere may be a possible triggering mechanism for the occurrence of the meso-β weather system. A budget analysis of the meso-scale system indicates that the sources of moisture and positive vorticity are different during the different stages of the meso-scale systems. Finally, a three dimensional conceptual model of the meso-β scale systems causing the sudden heavy rainfall in Wuhan and Huangshi is suggested. Received November 4, 2001 Revised December 28, 2001     

Precipitation responses to radiative effects of ice clouds: A cloud-resolving modeling study of a pre-summer torrential precipitation event

The precipitation responses to the radiative effects of ice clouds are investigated through analysis of five-day and horizontally averaged data from 2D cumulus ensemble model experiments of a pre-summer torrential precipitation event. The exclusion of the radiative effects of ice clouds lowered the precipitation rate through a substantial reduction in the decrease of hydrometeors when the radiative effects of water clouds were switched on, whereas it increased the precipitation rate through hydrometeor change from an increase to a decrease when the radiative effects of ice clouds were turned off. The weakened hydrometeor decrease was associated with the enhanced longwave radiative cooling mainly through the decreases in the melting of non-precipitating ice to non-precipitating water. The hydrometeor change from an increase to a decrease corresponded to the strengthened longwave radiative cooling in the upper troposphere through the weakened collection of non-precipitating water by precipitation water.