A study of a precipitation system in northeastern Taiwan during TAMEX IOP#10

Summary Two-thirds of the land mass of Taiwan island is covered by mountains that affect precipitation systems over the island. To understand the influence of such terrain on a precipitation system was one of the objectives of TAMEX (Taiwan Area Mesoscale Experiment, Kuo and Chen, 1990). During the passage of these precipitation systems, Doppler radar readings as well as conventional data were collected. On 17 June, 1987 a precipitation system moving toward northeastern Taiwan dumped over 100 mm of rainfall per day near the mountain foothills, not far from the ocean. Over the lee side, the precipitation amount was less. The radar data results indicate that a series of cells formed about 10 km upstream of the coastal area and moved toward the mountains under the influence of an easterly wind. The zonal speed was about 4 to 8 ms^–1. The time interval for the formation of these convective cells was about 40 minutes. They intensified near the coastal area, the foot hills and the mountain slope, but their intensity decreased on the lee-side. A two-dimensional, nonhydrostatic model with a terrain-following coordinate system was employed to study the influence of environmental wind patterns and terrain on the characteristics of a precipitation system. Simulation results indicate that a series of clouds associated with an updraft formed at the middle level, about 10 to 20 km east of the mountain foothills (near the coast line), under the influence of easterly winds in a very moist environment. Then, updrafts associated with cloud water travelled westward from the cloudy region, intensifying near the bottom of the mountains and in the coastal areas due to orographic lifting. Then, convective cells formed. As these cells continued moving westward and upward near the foothills as well as the upslope area near the mountain top, their intensity increased. But once they passed over the mountain top to the lee side, their intensity decreased. The time interval for the formation of cells was about 35 minutes and the size of the cells was about 5 to 8 km horizontally. The numerical results are qualitatively consistent with the observations. Sensitivity studies indicate that the magnitude of the wind speed influenced the formation of the cells. The low level wind profiles affected the movement of cells on the lee-side of the mountain, and the height of mountain also had an impact on the characteristics of the precipitation cells.With 18 Figures     

A Numerical Study of Precipitation Characteristics over Taiwan Island during the Winter Season

Summary  Two-thirds of the land mass of Taiwan island is mountainous, which affects the airflow and precipitation systems over the island. In this study, we discuss the characteristics of precipitation systems when the prevailing wind direction is from the north-east during winter. Observations indicate that rainfall amounts were higher in northeastern Taiwan (the upstream side of the mountains) and that a rainfall shadow occurred in southwestern Taiwan. Simulation results from a non-hydrostatic model indicate that airflow was deflected in eastern Taiwan, while relatively high (low) pressure areas formed in eastern (western) Taiwan. A higher mixing ratio of rainfall occurred over northeastern Taiwan while lighter rainfall occurred in the eastern, and northwestern areas and the southern tip of Taiwan. This was consistent with the observational data except for the southern tip of Taiwan. Uplift due to the topography near the mountainous areas, as well as low level convergence near the coastal areas (due to the deceleration of an easterly wind in northeastern Taiwan), helped form the mixing ratio of rain. Transportation of the mixing ratio of rainfall, due to low level westward flow and upper level eastward flow, caused it to cover a larger area. The mixing ratio of rainfall formed in the upper mountainous areas in northeastern Taiwan if the upstream moisture content was reduced significantly. A temperature inversion at low levels resulted in a decrease in relative humidity and an increase in stability, requiring that the mixing ratio of rainfall should develop closer to the mountainous areas. If a low level wind blew parallel to the orientation of the mountains (NNE-SSW), a higher mixing ratio of rainfall could occur in the mountainous areas of western Taiwan. Received January 30, 1998 Revised February 19, 1999     

MM5模式及CALMET模型对甘肃酒泉地区风能资源的数值模拟

利用NCEP 1°×1°再分析资料,采用中尺度模式MM5及诊断风场模型CALMET,对2009年6月—2010年5月甘肃省酒泉地区风能资源进行了数值模拟研究。结果表明,远离山体且地势平坦的地区,模拟的风速与实测风速的误差较小,地形复杂的地区误差偏大。用于对比的10座风塔中有7座在70m高度处的相对误差基本在10%以内,3座相对误差稍大但都在20%以内。风速和风功率密度的季节变化在春季最大,冬、秋季次之,夏季最小。这种季节变化与地形地势及所受的天气系统有密切联系。在酒泉地区随着高度的增加,风速逐渐加大;在河西走廊西端和酒泉北部等海拔较低的地区风速随高度增加的趋势尤为明显。通过对模拟年度风速误差的分析,得到模拟年度在酒泉地区属于大风年,若分析酒泉地区多年平均风况,还需要对模拟结果进行订正。     

基于风廓线雷达的湖北梅雨期暴雨中小尺度特征

针对2016年湖北梅雨期3次(“6·19”、“7·5”和“7·19”)暴雨过程,首先对比了汉口站探空数据与汉口、咸宁两个风廓线雷达站水平风速、风向,发现“6·19”和“7·5”过程汉口风廓线雷达站3 km以下水平风速和探空数据较为接近,而3次过程中咸宁风廓线雷达站8 km以下水平风向、风速和汉口站探空数据基本吻合。在此基础上利用风廓线雷达资料并结合常规、加密自动气象站资料,对3次过程中水平风场、平均垂直速度及其变率、水平风速垂直切变、大气折射率结构常数(C■)等进行分析。结果表明：(1)降水开始前西南风速明显增大,中层干冷空气入侵和地面冷池形成的中尺度偏东气流是“6·19”过程50站出现大于等于17.2 m·s^-1大风的主要原因,“7·5”和“7·19”过程西南急流长时间维持及1 km以下的偏东气流则是短时强降水持续时间较长的诱因;(2)梅雨期暴雨期间风廓线雷达观测的水平风速垂直切变、平均垂直速度及其变率随高度变化较小,较强上升运动区域主要集中在4 km高度以下;(3)C■显示强降水发生前大气水汽含量有一增加过程,且整层水汽含量深厚,C■大值区的消失对应降水结束。     

A study of orographic effects on mountain-generated precipitation systems under weak synoptic forcing

Summary ?Mountains profoundly impact precipitation systems in Taiwan, particularly in areas occupying roughly two-thirds of the island’s landmass. This study examines the terrain structures possibly affecting the formation of rainfall systems in northern Taiwan by analyzing radar data, surface rainfall data, and simulation results from MM5 (Fifth-Generation NCAR/Penn State Mesoscale Model) under a weak synoptic influence condition. More specifically, this study analyzes precipitation systems formed in three different days with different ambient wind directions (i.e., southwesterly, southerly and south-southeasterly flows) in a low Froude number regime in Mei-Yu (or Baiu) season. The southwesterly (southerly) predominant wind was blocked by CMR (central mountain range) over southwestern (southern) Taiwan. Consequently, the southwesterly (southerly) winds were diverted around southern Taiwan, traveled northward following the terrain contour of CMR and then converged in northeastern (northern) Taiwan to produce a NE-SW (N-S) orientated convergence area. As anabatic flow and onshore flow intensified in northern Taiwan and thus enhanced the existing convergence in the late morning and early afternoon, the precipitation system appeared over slope first and then moved down the slope following the predominant wind direction. Upwards motion persisted in this convergence region, and initiated a new precipitation system. Consequently, rainfall accumulation was orientated in a NE-SW (N-S) direction in northern Taiwan. On the windward side of CMR in central Taiwan, precipitation was first produced in the slope by anabatic flow and was generated in lower land because of the interaction between down slope and onshore flow in the late afternoon. When the flow was predominantly from the south-southeast, the convergence due to the splitting of the predominant over western Taiwan became weaken after onshore flow over west coast developed since the direction of onshore flow was against the splitting predominant flow. Precipitation only appeared in the sloping areas of northwestern and central Taiwan in the relatively dry environment resulting from the anabatic flow. Several sensitivity tests indicated that the lee-side convergence in a low Froude number regime superimposed by anabatic flow and onshore flow is important for producing rainfall in northern Taiwan. The prevailing wind direction determined the orientation of the rainfall accumulation in northern Taiwan. The high relative humidity is important for precipitation to form in lower elevations. Received February 9, 2001; Revised November 23, 2001     

祁连山区2006年夏季降水过程的天气分析

以500hPa盛行气流为主,将2006年7月17日～8月24日祁连山区的31次降水过程作天气分型。取30—45°N范围500hPa、110°E的格点平均位势高度减90°E平均位势高度的值为分类标准。分成3个主型：西南气流型、西北气流型和平直西风气流型。西南气流型又分移动型和阻塞型2个副型。西北气流型分西北气流冷平流型和冷涡2个副型。用试验区中尺度自动站网的降水资料,分析产生降水过程各天气类型的环流特征及其降水强度。发现2006年夏季祁连山南坡的总降水量比北坡同高度约多44％,而气候平均状况和2007年则北坡大于南坡。2006年祁连山区500hPa盛行西南风,而2007年盛行西北风。     

地形降水试验和背风回流降水机制

利用中尺度数值模式（ARPS模式）研究了湿气流过山脉地形和地形降水的产生机制。研究结果表明，地形降水是水汽、气流和地形相互作用而形成的。小山脉地形降水主要发生在山脉的迎风坡，表现出典型的迎风降水和背风雨影特征。而回流降水天气是湿气流过大的山脉地形的产物，大的山脉地形有利于风切变临界层的产生，地形降水并不只是简单的上坡降水，还有背风回流和背风波降水机制。     

北京地区暖季对流天气的气候特征

对北京地区最近12年暖季(5—9月)雷暴、冰雹、暴雨和大风等各种对流天气进行了气候统计和分析。统计结果表明:北京地区暖季发生对流的概率很高,按日数统计的气候概率达47.77%,大风、暴雨和冰雹气候概率分别为27.29%、10.84%和6.29%。暴雨多发季节为7月中旬到8月上旬。冰雹集中于6月中、下旬。在对流天气的地理分布上,北京西北部、东北部山区及西南部山区多对流天气,中心区和东南部平原地区对流天气较少。暴雨呈西南—东北方向带状分布,东北部山区、中部和东南部平原地区多发生暴雨,而西北部和西南部山区很少发生暴雨。山区冰雹明显多于平原。西北部和东北部山区大风偏多。暴雨有明显的夜发性。冰雹集中发生在午后到傍晚,占冰雹总站次的76.72%。     

Diurnal Variations of Summer Precipitation in the Beijing Area and the Possible Effect of Topography and Urbanization

The present study examined the diurnal variations of summer precipitation in the Beijing area by using subdaily precipitation and wind observations. A combined effect of topography and urbanization on the characteristics of diurnal variations was suggested. It was shown that stations located in the plain areaexhibited typical night rain peaks, whereas those in the mountainous area exhibited clear afternoon peaks ofprecipitation diurnal variations. The precipitation peaks were associated with wind fields around the Beijing area, which were found to be highly modulated by mountain-valley circulation and urban-country circulation.The lower-tropospheric wind exhibited a clear diurnal shift in its direction from north at 0800 LST to southat 2000 LST, which reflected mountain-valley circulation. The transitions from valley to mountain windand the opposite generally happened after sunset and sunrise, respectively, and both occurred earlier for thestations located closer to mountains. By comparing the diurnal variations of precipitation at stations in anortheast suburb, an urban area, and a southwest suburb, it was revealed that the northeast suburb grouphad the highest normalized rainfall frequency, but the southwest group had the lowest from late afternoon tolate evening. On the contrary, in the early morning from about 0200 to 1000 LST, the southwest group andurban group had the highest normalized rainfall frequency. This pattern might originate from the combined effects of mountain-valley topography and urbanization.     

地形对低涡大暴雨影响的数值模拟试验

用ＭＭ５模式对１９９８年６月２８￣２９日长江三峡及其附近的低涡大暴雨过程作了初步的模拟研究。通过两种地表方案模拟的对比表明,四川盆地东侧山地对西南低涡的产生没有明显影响,但对这次低涡暴雨的强度及其分布有重要影响,主要表现在：涡前暖湿气流受大巴山－神农架山脉拦截形成迎风麓大暴雨带,鄂西南山区南坡也有迎风坡暴雨区,降水系统在东移过程中受盆地东侧整个山体阻滞迫使上游降水显著增强,下游降水系统在东移过程中     

太行山东麓一次强对流降雹过程中的地形强迫

利用WRF模式对2011年5月26日发生在太行山东麓的一次强对流降雹过程进行数值模拟,探讨了太行山及周边地形在本次强对流过程的作用。结果表明,控制华北平原的偏东暖湿气流受太行山阻挡并与切变线东南侧的西南暖湿气流汇合,在太行山东侧形成水汽高值区。太行山东坡下垫面向上热通量明显高于华北平原,午后850hPa高度山坡与平原的假相当位温梯度达到0.2 K·km~(-1),850~600 hPa假相当位温垂直梯度达4 K·km~(-1),对应上坡风的垂直速度大于1 m·s~(-1),热力环流为太行山东麓对流的发生提供了动力条件。太行山东侧暖湿气层之上为偏西干冷气流,由此形成的强热力不稳定与水汽高值区、上坡风共同造成太行山东麓强对流过程的发生。局地小尺度地形抬升与重力波共同促使太原盆地有对流单体生成,该单体移经太行山西侧迎风坡受阻挡抬升而增强,越过山顶后与维持在太行山东侧的对流单体发生合并,从而导致对流云的强烈发展。     

A Study of Orographic Blocking and Barrier Wind Development Upstream of the Southern Alps, New Zealand

Summary Upper level and surface wind data for 1994 are used to provide an initial identification of the orographic effect on regional airflow patterns upwind of the mountain barrier. A case study of the development of upstream blocking and barrier jets is also provided. The predominance of gradient airflow from between northwest and southwest through this region results in frequent trans-mountain winds. The mountains are seen to have a major effect on airflow in the lowest 2000 m above sea level, with clear evidence of orographic blocking and barrier wind development. Some variability in the extent of this blocking was noted during 1994, which appeared to be associated with changes in the synoptic circulation and air mass characteristics. The frequent occurrence of southwesterly winds between 300 m and 2000 m indicates significant deflection of the predominant winds to follow the southwest-northeast orientation of the mountains. These southwesterly barrier winds occur in opposition to the apparent pressure gradient. Northeasterly barrier winds occur mainly below 300 m, and represent a down-gradient, localised flow that is frequently separated from overlying northwesterly gradient winds by a transitional layer, within which the wind backs with height. The controls of the extent of orographic blocking are only assessed superficially, due to the lack of good thermodynamic data upstream of the mountains, although a combination of wind speed and atmospheric stability is obviously important. These initial results provide a useful insight into the extent of orographic effects on regional windfields, which will serve as the basis for future observational and modelling studies. Received June 11, 1998 Revised April 16, 1999     

Spatial and temporal characteristics of precipitation using an extensive network of ground gauge in the Korean Peninsula

The aim of the present study is to investigate the spatial and temporal structures of precipitation over the Korean Peninsula using extensive AWS (automatic weather stations) observation network data for the summertime from May to September. Additionally TRMM/PR precipitation data in the southern part of peninsula was used to investigate the vertical structure. For the spatial and temporal scales of hourly precipitation, the e-folding threshold approach was employed to cut off the correlation in terms of distance in km and time in hours. From a correlation analysis of AWS precipitation in terms of time and space, it was found out that the e-folding distance and e-folding time in correlation coefficients ranged from 50 km–110 km and 1 h–2 h. The shortest distance and time in e-folding values were found to be in July and August. Precipitation structures in May and September tended to be isotropic, a cell-type structure, and those of July and August had an apparent band type, from the southwest to northeast. In the case of the vertical feature of precipitation, the correlation with height showed that the vertically efficient height was within 5 km as convective rain cells with a monthly difference of 1.2 km. In this study, the coastal effect tended to slightly increase threshold values.     

风廓线雷达在高空风场分析中的应用

利用大连风廓线雷达高时空分辨率风场观测资料,统计2011年雷达站上空各层水平及垂直风速的分布特征.通过分析发现:最大水平风速通常出现在12 km上下,受高空急流的影响,各季节高空最大水平风速出现高度不同,4 km以下高空水平风速随高度的变化各月份存在一定差异,4 km以上至最大风速层,水平风速随高度的升高而增大,最大风速层以上至雷达测量的上限水平风速随高度增加先减小后增大;高空垂直风速在夏季较为明显,秋季次之,冬春季节最小;6月是全年月均垂直风速最大的月份,在500～1300 m高度层存在一个上升气流中心,平均风速大于0.6 m/s,2月各高度平均垂直风速全年最小.     

THE IMPACT OF MOUNTAIN TO BASIN WINDS ON THE DIURNAL VARIATION IN FOG OVER THE SICHUAN BASIN, CHINA

There is an increased demand for the accurate prediction of fog events in the Sichuan Basin (SCB) using numerical methods. A dense fog event that occurred over the SCB on 22 December 2016 was investigated. The results show that this dense fog event was influenced by the southwest of a low pressure with a weak horizontal pressure gradient and high relative humidity. This fog event showed typical diurnal variations. The fog began to form at 1800 UTC on 21 December 2016 (0200 local standard time on 22 December 2016) and dissipated at 0600 UTC on 22 December 2016 (1400 local standard time on 22 December 2016). The Weather Research and Forecasting model was able to partially reproduce the main features of this fog event and the diurnal variation in the local mountain to basin winds. The simulated horizontal visibility and liquid water content were used to characterize the fog. The mountain to basin winds had an important role in the diurnal variation of the fog event. The positive feedback mechanism between the fog and mountain to basin winds was good for the formation and maintain of the fog during the night. During the day, the mountain to basin wind displayed a transition from downslope flows to upslope flows. Water vapor evaporated easily from the warm, strong upslope winds, which resulted in the dissipation of fog during the day. The topography surrounding the SCB favored the lifting and condensation of air parcels in the lower troposphere as a result of the low height of the lifting condensation level.     

台湾岛地形对“麦德姆”台风的影响

采用WRF模式,以2014年10号台风"麦德姆"为例,针对台湾岛中央山脉的局部地形,设计精细化地形试验,数值模拟了"麦德姆"台风登陆台湾岛前后地形对其路径、强度及风雨分布的影响。研究结果表明:真实的地形能更好的模拟和再现"麦德姆"台风发生发展的过程;台湾岛中央山脉地形对登岛"麦德姆"台风的路径有实质性的影响,降低台湾地形高度试验导致台风路径向西南偏转,而提高台湾岛地形高度则导致台风路径向东北偏转,地形高度改变的程度与路径偏转程度成正相关,地形高度改变所导致阻挡效应及台风环流与大尺度环流的相互作用是导致路径偏转的主要原因;台湾岛地形高度的改变对台风强度有明显的影响,增加或减少台湾岛地形高度,都会使台风强度有所减弱,这与地形变化引起的动力狭管效应、云水物质分布及外围云带的对流运动有关;台湾岛地形影响"麦德姆"台风降水的机制更为复杂,其不仅与地形引发的台风强度及结构变化有关,更与地形引起的眼区对流活动和螺旋云带及外围云系的时空分布有关。     

华南暴雨试验IOP-6期间6月9日长乐地区强降水风场结构的初步分析

华南暴雨第六次加强观测期间 (IOP-6), 1998年6月9日在福建长乐地区出现了一次局地性的强降水过程.该文应用单多普勒天气雷达资料及其风场反演结果对此次过程进行了初步分析, 从多普勒雷达反演的风场结构看, 这次过程与出现在3~5 km高度上的风切变有关, 在低层雷达回波图像上出现中尺度气旋波的结构, 强降水是气旋波活动的结果.     

Mountain effect on the motion in the atmosphere's boundary layer

An analysis of 3 years' (1967–70) radiosonde wind data on the windward (Salt Lake City, Utah) and lee (Denver, Colorado) sides of mountains indicates that at these two stations: (1) the distributions of the kinetic energy of the mean and turbulent motions are similar above the mountain top; (2) below the mountain top, on the windward side, mountains tend to divert the component of the mean motion normal to the mountains to that parallel to the mountains; (3) the meridional eddy transport of westerly momentum is affected by the presence of the mountains to a higher level to the lee of the mountains than upwind of them; (4) the production of turbulent energy is higher below the mountain top in the vicinity of mountains than it is for the zonal average; (5) high frequencies of the motion show a more pronounced contribution in the meridional motion in the windward side, but in the zonal motion in the lee of the mountains; (6) disturbances of 1–2 day periods can be maintained deep into the valley, whereas disturbances of longer periods reduce their amplitudes rapidly with decreasing height from the mountain top; (7) the cospectra of the wind velocities show that the southward/northward transport of westerly momentum results from a southward/northward contribution from most frequencies. The main contributions come from eddies with periods longer than two days.     

Satellite Observations of Reflectivity Maxima above the Freezing Level Induced by Terrain

Previous studies have recognized reflectivity maxima above the freezing level(RMAF) within stratiform precipitation over mountain slopes, however, quantitative studies are limited due to the lack of adequate identification criteria. Here, we establish an identification method for RMAF precipitation and apply it to the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission(TRMM) Precipitation Radar(PR) observations. Using the TRMM 2A25 product from 1998 to 2013, we show that the RMAF structure in reflectivity profiles can be effectively identified. RMAF exists not only in stratiform precipitation but also in convective precipitation. RMAF frequency is positively correlated with elevation, which is thought to be caused by enhanced updrafts in the middle layers of stratiform precipitation, or in the low to middle layers of convective precipitation over mountains. The average RMAF heights in stratiform and convective precipitation were 1.35 and 2.01 km above the freezing level, respectively, which is lower than previous results. In addition, our results indicate that the RMAF structure increased the echo top height and enhanced precipitation processes above the RMAF height, but it suppressed the downward propagation of ice particles and the near-surface rain rate. Future studies of orographic precipitation should take into account the impact of the RMAF structure and its relevant dynamic triggers.     

风廓线雷达测风精度评估

采用风廓线雷达5波束探测模式的数据对测风精度进行评估分析,用垂直波束和其中两个相邻倾斜波束的探测数据构成一对计算因子,通过对同一距离高度上的4对计算因子进行误差分析,评估风廓线雷达的测风精度,得到水平风在垂直指向连续高度上的精度。对北京延庆CFL-08风廓线雷达2010年3,6,9,12月4个典型代表月份逐日连续探测资料进行了处理分析,结果表明:该雷达满足风速误差不大于1.5 m·s-1、风向误差不大于10°探测精度要求的最大探测高度6月、9月为8 km,3月、12月为6 km,基本符合该雷达探测高度的设计要求。信噪比、大气风场的不均匀性是影响雷达测风精度的主要因素:信噪比影响了高空的测风精度,-15 dB可以作为判断雷达测风可信数据最大探测高度的阈值;晴空大气出现的风场不均匀性对风廓线雷达的测风精度影响不大,降水出现时环境风场不均匀性造成水平风向、风速的测量误差较大,不能满足测风精度要求,特别是对流性降水发生前的1~2 h,水平风向、风速的方差增长迅速,可以作为强降水出现的预警指标。