LAND SUBSIDENCE IN THE LOS BANOS–KETTLEMAN CITY AREA,CALIFORNIA: PAST AND FUTURE OCCURRENCE

Land subsidence in the western San Joaquin Valley has been studied and monitored for almost six decades. Especially in the 1950s and 1960s, land subsidence had tremendous negative environmental and socioeconomic implications. The rate of land subsidence in the Los Banos–Kettleman City area, however, has decreased during the last three decades as a result of a decrease in groundwater withdrawal, following the importation of surface water to the Valley in late 1960s. The land subsidence in the Valley potentially could be a serious issue if the existing surface water supplies cannot meet increasing water demands during future critical drought periods. In this respect, this paper proposes a preliminary analysis to predict magnitudes of subsidence for the period 2000 to 2040, based on historical occurrences. In this study, extrapolation from earlier subsidence is based on: (1) knowledge of recent post-drought records at extensometers, (2) assumption of a single time porosity scenario, and (3) the premise that pumpage from the confined aquifer gradually will decrease as a result of progressive water quality degradation. Predicted magnitudes of land subsidence in the Los Banos–Kettleman City area are expected to be in the range 0.5 to 4.0 m for the next 4 to 5 decades under the scenario considered in this paper. [Key words: subsidence, groundwater extraction, aquitard, inelastic compaction, active porosity, Los Banos-Kettleman City, California.]     

基于SAR的拉合尔地面沉降监测与沉降因素评价（英文）

合理开发和管理自然资源对于实现可持续发展至关重要,地面沉降作为目前影响城市可持续发展的最重要地质灾害,其与人类活动有着紧密的关系,如地下水开采,基础设施开发导致的施工超载等。巴基斯坦第二大城市拉合尔出现了显著的地面沉降现象,与此同时,拉合尔也正在经历城市化过程中的人口密度急剧增加、大规模城市建设和地下水开采,通过分析拉合尔地面沉降的不同空间模式与人类活动的对应关系,将有助于合理规划拉合尔城市的发展。本文利用永久散射体合成孔径雷达干涉测量(PSI)技术对拉合尔2018年8月-2019年8月的Sentinel-1数据进行In SAR处理,获取了该城市的地表形变速率为-114-15毫米/年,并结合拉合尔的土地覆盖图、交通网络和水道、土壤类型、人口密度和现场点数据,分析各种因素在地面抬升或沉降发生中的作用。结果显示,沉降与各种参数（如地下水抽取和地下水位降低、土壤类型变化、土地覆盖变化、地表水通道和人口密度）之间建立了很强的相关性,其中拉合尔中部人口密集,地下水开采严重,使其成为该地区沉降最为严重的区域,而在拉维河附近人口较少的农村地区,由于通过运河系统,地下水得到河流补给,观察到了地表抬升。     

Tectonic control on sedimentary evolution of three North Atlantic borderland Mesozoic basins1

Multiple episodes of extensional tectonism dominated the formation of Mesozoic fault-bounded basins on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, the Irish Continental Shelf and the central North Sea. A range of structural and stratigraphic responses in the Jeanne d'Arc, Porcupine and Moray Firth basins support widespread synchronous tectonic controls on sedimentation during one of these episodes, the Late Cimmerian. Rifting was preceded by a phase of related tectonism during which subsidence rates began to vary across broad areas but without significant fault block rotation. This Late Cimmerian ‘onset warp’ pattern of subsidence is considered to have been essential in the establishment of restricted anoxic basins from latest Oxfordian through Kimmeridgian (sensu gallico) time and the development of one prolific layer of organic-rich source rocks. The most prominent and widely recognized structural/lithostratigraphic response to Late Cimmerian rifting was the deposition of sediment wedges. Tithonian to early Valanginian strata generally thicken- into northerly trending faults in the Jeanne d'Arc and Porcupine basins, indicating that extensional stress was orientated WNW-ESE across a very broad area. The misalignment of this regional Late Cimmerian extensional stress with local inherited structural fabric may be responsible for transpressional uplift of individual fault blocks in the Outer Moray Firth basin. Sedimentological responses to Late Cimmerian rifting were varied, though a common lithofacies stacking pattern is recognized. Variably thick conglomerates and/or sandstones were widely deposited at the start of rift deformation, while palaeoenvironments ranged from alluvial and braid plain to submarine fan even within individual basins. The relatively coarse basal sediments fine upwards into a second layer of commonly organic-rich shales and mark The widest variations in palaeoenvironments and sediment thicknesses occurred during the last phase of Late Cimmerian rift tectonism, though all three basins show evidence of decreasing water depths, increasing oxygen levels and increasing grain size. This lithofacies stacking pattern of relatively coarse to fine to coarse (reservoir/source/reservoir) and the development of bounding unconformities are largely attributable to progressive changes in rift-controlled subsidence. Rift basin subsidence rates are interpreted to increase from a low at initiation of faulting to a mid-rift peak, followed by slowing subsidence to the end of extension. A number of counteracting crustal mechanisms that may account for progressive variations in rift-induced subsidence are considered.     

30年来青海三江源生态系统格局和空间结构动态变化

在多期遥感图像支持下,通过对生态系统类型进行辨识,获得了三江源地区生态系统类型空间分布数据集,并在此基础上分析了20世纪70年代中后期以来青海三江源地区生态系统格局和空间结构的动态变化。结果表明:30年来三江源地区生态系统格局稳定少动,生态系统类型变化相对缓慢,农田、森林、草地、水体与湿地和荒漠生态系统的年变化速率均小于0.5%,是长江、黄河流域乃至全国各区域生态系统转类变幅最小的稳定少动区。20世纪70年代中后期以来三江源地区生态系统类型的转变主要发生在草地和水体与湿地生态系统上,草地生态系统的变化主要发生在中部和东部地区,水体与湿地生态系统的变化主要发生在广大西部和北部地区。     

东江流域地表水功能区水质对土地利用的响应

以广东省东江流域2013年地表水功能区水质监测数据和Landsat8 OLI遥感影像为数据源,通过遥感信息提取、GIS空间分析和数理统计方法,对不同空间尺度河岸缓冲带土地利用结构与水体中的高锰酸盐指数（CODMn）、氨氮（NH3-N）和总磷（TP）进行相关性分析。结果表明：1）在水功能区中,开发利用区河岸带的城市化程度较高,水质状况相对较差;保护区、保留区、缓冲区河岸带用地类型以耕地和林地为主,水质状况明显优于开发利用区。2）耕地、林地和草地对水质具有正效应,水体和建设用地对水质具有负效应;同时,建设用地对水质影响作用最强,其次是水体和耕地。3）CODMn与耕地、林地、草地、建设用地的相关性远高于NH3-N和TP,3种水质指标与水体相关性都较大。4）耕地和草地与水质在小尺度范围内相关性最为显著;林地和建设用地与水质相关性随河岸缓冲带尺度增大而增大,水体与水质相关性随河岸缓冲带尺度不同呈波动性变化。     

赤水河流域中上游坡地景观特征对河流水质的影响

在喀斯特地区,较大的地表坡降和坡地开发强度导致承载在地表景观上的污染物因地势和降水加倍迁移到河水中。以赤水河流域中上游为研究区,分别在全子流域、子流域坡地、子流域陡坡地三个层面上提取景观结构、景观开发强度和景观格局指数,研究各级坡地景观特征对水质的影响。结果表明：① 与总林地相比坡林地对水质潜在的“汇”作用更加显著;占总耕地面积不足1/7的陡坡耕地、却对河水中总磷（TP）和氨氮（NH₃-N）浓度大小贡献显著（相关系数为0.608和0.614）。② 景观开发强度与各水质污染物指标呈现显著而稳定的正相关性,相关系数最高达0.960,它比单个景观对水质指标更具解释能力。③ 斑块形状复杂度、景观多样性、景观分离度均与水质污染物指标呈高度或显著正相关,且随着地形坡度的增大,水质污染物指标对景观散布与并列指数（IJI）和农香多样性指数（SHDI）越来越敏感。故减少对坡地尤其是陡坡地景观的不当人为干扰,对喀斯特地区流域水质保护有重要意义。     

Anomalous passive subsidence of deep‐water sedimentary basins: a prearc basin example,southern New Caledonia Trough and Taranaki Basin,New Zealand

Stratigraphic data from petroleum wells and seismic reflection analysis reveal two distinct episodes of subsidence in the southern New Caledonia Trough and deep‐water Taranaki Basin. Tectonic subsidence of ~2.5 km was related to Cretaceous rift faulting and post‐rift thermal subsidence, and ~1.5 km of anomalous passive tectonic subsidence occurred during Cenozoic time. Pure‐shear stretching by factors of up to 2 is estimated for the first phase of subsidence from the exponential decay of post‐rift subsidence. The second subsidence event occured ~40 Ma after rifting ceased, and was not associated with faulting in the upper crust. Eocene subsidence patterns indicate northward tilting of the basin, followed by rapid regional subsidence during the Oligocene and Early Miocene. The resulting basin is 300–500 km wide and over 2000 km long, includes part of Taranaki Basin, and is not easily explained by any classic model of lithosphere deformation or cooling. The spatial scale of the basin, paucity of Cenozoic crustal faulting, and magnitudes of subsidence suggest a regional process that acted from below, probably originating within the upper mantle. This process was likely associated with inception of nearby Australia‐Pacific plate convergence, which ultimately formed the Tonga‐Kermadec subduction zone. Our study demonstrates that shallow‐water environments persisted for longer and their associated sedimentary sequences are hence thicker than would be predicted by any rift basin model that produces such large values of subsidence and an equivalent water depth. We suggest that convective processes within the upper mantle can influence the sedimentary facies distribution and thermal architecture of deep‐water basins, and that not all deep‐water basins are simply the evolved products of the same processes that produce shallow‐water sedimentary basins. This may be particularly true during the inception of subduction zones, and we suggest the term ‘prearc’ basin to describe this tectonic setting.     

上海城市地貌形变与防汛墙地理工程透析

从城市地貌学角度分析了上海城市地貌形变的阶段性、致灾性,探讨了防汛墙与地貌形变的相互关系、工程特点及存在问题,提出了阶段性地貌形变对市区河流沉积控制的概念模式。同时认为,上海高强度人类活动对自然地理系统的最大影响莫过于自然地貌面相对于周边地区的阶段性沉降变形(即地貌形变),并由此造成其他自然地理要素的相应变化;地貌形变发生后很难修复并具有明显的致灾性,使地势本来低平的上海受到来自洪水的更大威胁;作为地貌形变后的防汛墙治理工程其设计标高在近期是有效的,但从长期看存在局限性。上海城市地貌环境问题只有从宏观和长远的城市规划层面上去认识才能从根本上得以缓解。     

甘肃中部地区景观生态格局与土地利用变化研究

采用1986~2000年TM和ETM+影像数据,计算景观生态指数得出整个地区景观生态空间格局,通过对土地利用/覆盖变化的时空变化分析,实现空间格局和地理时间变化过程的小尺度区域有机结合,对干旱半干旱脆弱生态环境下城镇较为密集地区的人地关系研究具有典型意义。研究表明：低、中覆盖度草地构成本地区基质,沟谷河谷与交通通道是联系乡村和城市的主要廊道,本地区属于人类影响渐强区,在干旱半干旱自然条件下,城镇用地扩张是整个地区土地利用变化主要因素,农业结构调整在空间上改变着空间格局。     

中国土地利用变化生态环境效应的空间分异性与形成机理

中国复杂的自然要素、社会经济要素、区域发展战略和政策调控形成了当前中国不均衡的经济发展空间格局、土地利用空间格局和生态环境质量空间格局。厘清中国生态环境质量的空间格局及形成机理对中国土地资源的可持续利用和生态环境的有效保护具有重要的实践意义和价值。以往研究缺乏对中国县域尺度土地利用/土地覆被变化生态环境效应的空间分异性及形成机理的相关研究,本研究基于1995—2015年间中国土地利用现状遥感监测数据,尝试采用生态环境质量指数方法测度中国土地利用变化的生态环境效应,并且综合运用重心分析、热点分析工具（Getis-Ord G_i*）和地理探测器等研究方法,分析1995—2015年中国生态环境质量时空演变特征及形成机理。研究结果如下：① 东部季风区生态环境质量指数高于青藏高寒区和西北干旱区,东部季风区生态环境质量低值区主要分布在人口和经济集聚的城市群以及省会城市周边地区。研究期间中国生态环境质量重心持续向西北方向迁移;② 1995—2015年间中国生态环境质量变化的热点区域主要分布在西藏地区、新疆、重庆、贵州以及位于黄土高原的省份（青海、甘肃、宁夏、内蒙古、山西、陕西以及河南）境内,冷点区域主要分布在长江经济带沿线地区省份以及东南部沿海地区省份;③ 土地利用程度对于生态环境质量影响力显著强于其他因子,东部季风区的社会经济和交通区位因子对生态环境质量影响力强于青藏高寒区、西北干旱区和生态大区过渡带;④ 影响因子之间相互作用主要包括非线性增强作用和双因子增强作用两种类型,以非线性增强作用为主。     

伊犁河谷2001-2014年地表温度时空分异特征

地表温度是地表能量平衡、区域和全球尺度地表物理过程的一个重要因子。为了辨析中国西北干旱区“天山湿岛”——伊犁河谷的地表温度时空分异,采用趋势分析法和空间数据统计法,探讨了2001-2014年不同土地利用/覆盖类型下地表温度时空变化规律,分析地表温度的时空分异特征及原因。结果表明：（1） MODIS LST产品的精度（平均R²=0.90）能够满足伊犁河谷地表温度时空变化分析的要求;（2）空间上,地表温度呈现出中部高四周低的变化趋势,高温区面积约占总面积的41%,低温区面积约占总面积的23%;时间上,伊犁河谷平均地表温度的年际波动较大,以2013年、2006年、2007年和2008年尤为突出;地表温度的年内变化呈现出单峰型分布,地表温度高值集中在3-8月,最高值出现在7月;（3）不同土地利用/覆盖类型下年均地表温度分布的总体特征为建设用地最高,稀疏草地、旱地等次之,冰川/积雪最低;（4）伊犁河谷地表温度变化趋势呈严重减少、基本不变和轻微增加区域面积分别占5%、37%和26%,以基本不变和轻微增加为主。伊犁河谷地表温度时空变化不仅受大尺度气候变化影响,还受土地类型差异影响,两者共同构成了不同地理区域及景观的温场格局,绿色植被对地表温度时空分布具有重要的调节作用。     

基于TM数据的广州市番禺区土地覆被格局分析

以覆盖番禺区1990年、1995年、2000年、2005年4个时相Landsat-TM影像为主要数据源,借助GIS手段和景观生态学方法生成土地覆被图。在数量化研究LUCC的基础上,借助景观格局指数反映番禺区4个时相土地覆被的变化机制,对土地覆被景观格局生态效应研究提供依据。研究表明:番禺区的土地利用结构在1990~1995年间处于开发调整时期,2000年后土地利用结构调整趋于成熟,土地覆被变化伴随着城市化的进程趋于平缓。研究时期内,番禺区的景观破碎度增加,土地利用结构的复杂程度也在增加,人为因素导致的土地覆被类型变化的影响逐渐替代自然作用下土地覆被类型情况。     

上海城市地貌环境的致灾性

随着城市化和再城市化的快速发展,上海城市地貌环境呈现出明显的致灾性。通过从地貌物质、地貌过程和地貌形态三方面进行了剖析,认为地貌物质中含水沙层广泛发育和层数多是地貌灾害发生的重要因素,其横向上的不连续性、成因和形成时间的差异性更为地貌灾害的发生埋下阴影;地势低平及中心城区碟形洼地的存在使得洪水构成对上海城市安全的最大威胁;高强度人类活动不仅改变城市自然地貌面(下垫面)的性质、特征和规模,而且直接导致它的沉降变形,从而使城市地貌环境更为脆弱和致灾机制的复杂化。特别是地貌形变过程的不可逆性,已引起城市自然地理其它要素(如水文、气候等)的一系列变化和造成城市生态环境的恶化,对城市规划建设起到明显的制约作用。上海只有重视城市地貌资源的合理利用和城市地貌环境的有效保护才能走上健康、持续的发展道路。     

Tectonic evolution of the North Sea basin: crustal stretching and subsidence

Summary. The lithospheric stretching model for the formation of sedimentary basins was tested in the central North Sea by a combined study of crustal thinning and basement subsidence patterns. A profile of crustal structure was obtained by shooting a long-range seismic experiment across the Central Graben, the main axis of subsidence. A seabed array of 12 seismometers in the graben was used to record shots fired in a line 530 km long across the basin. The data collected during the experiment were interpreted by modelling synthetic seismograms from a laterally varying structure, and the final model showed substantial crustal thinning beneath the graben. Subsidence data from 19 exploration wells were analysed to obtain subsidence patterns in the central North Sea since Jurassic times. Changes in water depth were quantified using foraminiferal assemblages where possible, and observed basement subsidence paths were corrected for sediment loading, compaction and changes in water depth through time. The seismic model is shown to be compatible with the observed gravity field, and the small size of observed gravity anomalies is used to argue that the basin is in local isostatic equilibrium. Both crustal thinning and basement subsidence studies indicate about 70 km of stretching across the Central Graben during the mid-Jurassic to early Cretaceous extensional event. This extension appears to have occurred over crust already slightly thinned beneath the graben, and the seismic data suggest that total extension since the early Permian may have been more than 100km. The data presented here may all be explained using a simple model of uniform extension of the lithosphere.     

基于土地利用转移流的国土空间格局演变及其驱动机制研究——以宁夏原州区为例

提出了基于土地利用转移流的溯源分析法,结合社会网络分析方法与核密度分析法,探究了2000—2018年原州区国土空间格局演变及其动力机制。结果表明：（1） 原州区的三生空间向生产空间增效、生活空间扩容、生态空间提质的方向演化,生产、生活和生态用地结构由2000年的44.76%、2.90%、52.34%调整为2018年的41.17%、6.29%、52.54%。（2） 原州区的三生空间变化与现行国土空间优化目标有较高的契合度,生态用地的转入主要发生在不宜耕作或不宜居住的区域,体现“生态空间山清水秀”导向;生产空间通过坡改梯田、提供灌溉条件以提升水土资源集约利用水平,体现“生产空间集约高效”导向;生活空间的扩张主要发生在居住条件更为适宜的河谷区,体现“生活空间宜居”导向。（3） 三生空间格局演变表现出明显的空间集聚性,呈现出六盘山阴湿区为带状高值区、黄土丘陵沟壑区为散点高值区、清水河谷为团块状高值区的特征,且不同地类变化的空间集聚性特征有所不同。（4） 基于土地利用转移流溯源法提出了原州区三生空间演变的“动力-响应-结果”传导性动力机制;生态建设是国土空间格局演变最重要的驱动力,其次是水土资源集约利用,二者为国土空间格局优化作出重要贡献;水土流失是各类用地向未利用地转化的重要动力,今后仍需加大对水土流失的治理。通过探究经济与生态双重制约区国土空间变化特征及其动力机制,为国土空间优化提供决策参考。     

高寒草甸草地退化对土壤水热性质的影响及其环境效应

青藏高原高寒草甸草地的大面积退化,将改变浅层土壤的水热性质,影响地表水热交换,甚至导致区域生态环境的变化。本文通过系统分析典型原生高寒草甸与中度退化高寒草甸的植物群落特征、地上地下生物量和土壤理化特征的差异,研究高寒草甸草地退化对土壤水热性质的影响及其环境效应。结果表明:随着高寒草甸草地退化,植被覆盖度显著降低(p<0.01),适应旱生、深根系的杂草侵入适应湿润生境、浅根系的以莎草科植物为主的原生植被,生物多样性显著增加(p<0.01);草毡表层(0～10 cm)地下生物量显著减少(p<0.01),30～50 cm地下生物量显著增加(p<0.01)。草毡表层变薄降低了土壤容重的垂向异质性,使表层土壤容重显著增加(p<0.01),土壤颗粒显著变粗(p<0.01)。受浅层土壤有机质降低和土壤容重增加的影响,中度退化高寒草甸土壤的持水量和饱和导水率降低,土壤导热率升高。高寒草甸草地植被退化,土壤持水量、饱和导水率降低和导热率增加将加速地表水热交换,对高寒草甸草地退化和下伏多年冻土消融都可能是正反馈。     

Vertical differentiation of land cover in the central Himalayas

Characterized by obvious altitudinal variation, habitat complexity, and diversity in land cover, the Mt. Qomolangma region within the central Himalayas is one of the most sensitive areas to climate change in the world. At the same time, because the Mt. Qomolangma region possesses the most complete natural vertical spectrum in the world, it is also an ideal place to study the vertical structure of alpine land cover. In this study, land cover data for 2010 along with digital elevation model data were used to define three methods for dividing the northern and southern slopes in the Mt. Qomolangma region, i.e., the ridgeline method, the sample transect method, and the sector method. The altitudinal distributions of different land cover types were then investigated for both the northern and southern slopes of the Mt. Qomolangma region by using the above three division methods along with Arc GIS and MATLAB tools. The results indicate that the land cover in the study region was characterized by obviously vertical zonation with the south-six and north-four pattern of vertical spectrum that reflected both the natural vertical structure of vegetation and the effects of human activities. From low to high elevation, the main land cover types were forests, grasslands, sparse vegetation, bare land, and glacier/snow cover. The compositions and distributions of land cover types differed significantly between the northern and southern slopes; the southern slope exhibited more complex land cover distributions with wider elevation ranges than the northern slope. The area proportion of each land cover type also varied with elevation. Accordingly, the vertical distribution patterns of different land cover types on the southern and northern slopes could be divided into four categories, with glaciers/snow cover, sparse vegetation, and grasslands conforming to unimodal distributions. The distribution of bare land followed a unimodal pattern on the southern slope but a bimodal pattern on the northern slope. Finally, the use of different slope division methods produced similar vertical belt structures on the southern slope but different ones on the northern slope. Among the three division methods, the sector method was better to reflect the natural distribution pattern of land cover.     

Alpine wetlands in the Lhasa River Basin, China

The Lhasa River Basin is one of the typical distribution regions of alpine wetlands on the Tibetan Plateau. It is very important to get a better understanding of the background and characteristics of alpine wetland for monitoring, protection and utilization. Wetland construction and distribution in the basin were analyzed based on multi-source data including field investigation data, CBERS remote sensing data and other thematic data provided by 3S technology. The results are (1) the total area of wetlands is 209,322.26 hm2, accounting for 6.37% of the total land area of the basin. The wetlands are mainly dominated by natural wetland, with artificial wetland occupying only 1.09% of the wetland area; marsh wetland is the principal part of natural wetland, dominated by Kobresia littledalei swampy meadow which is distributed in the river source area and upstream of Chali, Damshung and Medro Gongkar counties. The ratio and type of wetlands in different counties differ significantly, which are widely distributed in Chali and Damshung counties (accounting for 62% of the total wetland area). (2) The concentrated vertical distribution of wetlands is at an elevation of 3600–5100 m. The wetlands are widely distributed throughout the Yarlung Zangbo River Valley from river source to river mouth into the Yarlung Zangbo River. Marsh wetland is dominant in the source area and upstream of the river, with the mosaic distribution of lakes, Kobresia littledalei and Carex moorcroftii swampy meadow, shrubby swamp and river; as for the middle-down streams, the primary types are river wetland and flooded wetland. The distribution is in a mosaic pattern of river, Kobresia humilis and Carex moorcroftii swampy meadow, Phragmites australis and subordinate grass marsh, flooded wetland and artificial wetland.     

Subsidence and exhumation of the Mesozoic Qiangtang Basin: Implications for the growth of the Tibetan plateau

The subsidence and exhumation histories of the Qiangtang Basin and their contributions to the early evolution of the Tibetan plateau are vigorously debated. This paper reconstructs the subsidence history of the Mesozoic Qiangtang Basin with 11 selected composite stratigraphic sections and constrains the first stage of cooling using apatite fission track data. Facies analysis, biostratigraphy, palaeo‐environment interpretation and palaeo‐water depth estimation are integrated to create 11 composite sections through the basin. Backstripped subsidence calculations combined with previous work on sediment provenance and timing of deformation show that the evolution of the Mesozoic Qiangtang Basin can be divided into two stages. From Late Triassic to Early Jurassic times, the North Qiangtang was a retro‐foreland basin. In contrast, the South Qiangtang was a collisional pro‐foreland basin. During Middle Jurassic‐Early Cretaceous times, the North Qiangtang is interpreted as a hinterland basin between the Jinsha orogen and the Central Uplift; the South Qiangtang was controlled by subduction of Meso‐Tethyan Ocean lithosphere and associated dynamic topography combined with loading from the Central Uplift. Detrital apatite fission track ages from Mesozoic sandstones concentrate in late Early to Late Cretaceous (120.9–84.1 Ma) and Paleocene–Eocene (65.4–40.1 Ma). Thermal history modelling results record Early Cretaceous rapid cooling; the termination of subsidence and onset of exhumation of the Mesozoic Qiangtang Basin suggest that the accumulation of crustal thickening in central Tibet probably initiated during Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous times (150–130 Ma), involving underthrusting of both the Lhasa and Songpan–Ganze terranes beneath the Qiangtang terrane or the collision of Amdo terrane.