Seasonal dynamic of a shallow freshwater lens due to irrigation in the coastal plain of Ravenna,Italy

Irrigation in low-lying coastal plains may enhance the formation of fresh groundwater lenses, which counteract salinization of groundwater and soil. This study presents seasonal dynamics of such a freshwater lens and discusses its influence on the salinity distribution of the unconfined aquifer in the coastal plain of Ravenna, Italy, combining field observations with numerical modeling (SEAWAT). The lens originates from an irrigation ditch used as a water reservoir for spray irrigation. The geometry of the freshwater lens shows seasonal differences because of freshwater infiltration during the irrigation season and upconing of deeper saltwater for the remainder of the year. The extent of the freshwater lens is controlled by the presence of nearby drainage ditches. Irrigation also results in a temperature anomaly in the aquifer because of the infiltration of warm water during the irrigation season. The surficial zone in the vicinity of the irrigation ditch is increased considerably in thickness. Finally, different irrigation alternatives and the influence of sea-level rise are simulated. This shows that it is necessary to integrate irrigation planning into the water management strategy of the coastal zone to have maximum benefits for freshening of the aquifer and to make optimal use of the existing infrastructure.     

Sustainable groundwater extraction in coastal areas: a Belgian example

Water extractions in coastal areas have to deal with salt water intrusion and lowering of hydraulic heads in valuable ecosystems. Therefore, sustainable management of fresh water resources in these areas is crucial. This is illustrated here with two water extractions in the western Belgian coastal plain which extract groundwater from a phreatic dune aquifer. One water extraction faced problems with salt water intrusion, while lowering of hydraulic heads was an issue for both. To remedy the salt water intrusion, it was found that decreasing the extraction rate was the only solution. To offset this and to increase hydraulic heads around both extractions, it was decided to artificially recharge the aquifer of the second extraction with tertiary treated wastewater. By taking these interventions, the combined production capacity of the water extractions was increased with 56% whereas 27% less water was extracted from the dune aquifer itself. Extraction history and the effects of interventions are illustrated for both water extractions with water quality data and fresh water head observations. A more detailed insight in groundwater flow and fresh–salt water distribution in the aquifer is provided by simulating the evolution of the water extractions with a 3D density dependent groundwater flow model.     

Water budget management of a coastal pine forest in a Mediterranean catchment (Marina Romea, Ravenna, Italy)

In Mediterranean coastal catchments, water management for preservation of pine forests and other natural areas faces particular challenges. Limited rainfall, water consumption by vegetation as well as subsidence, drainage and salt water intrusion all play an important role. Traditionally forest and water management are carried out independent of one another and do not consider water budget calculations. We show with this study that is very important to have quantitative information of all the components of the water budget as well as the size of the fresh water lenses in the aquifer to be able to integrate the water- and forest management. We use an integrated hydrologic-ecologic methodology based on easily attainable data to assess the monthly water budget of a coastal catchment, Marina Romea (Ravenna, Italy). We present detailed monthly water table records, rainfall data, drainage data, tree density and tree perimeter and use published sap flow measurements of single pine trees (Pinus Pinea) to quantify the actual transpiration of single pine trees in different periods of the year. Transpiration amounts to 10–30 l per day per tree. These values are confirmed by independent estimates of tree transpiration based on our water budget calculations: 9–34 l/tree/day. Because typically there are so many trees in planted pine forests, the total transpiration rates over the whole watershed take up a large percentage (up to 200 %) of the precipitation. In Marina Romea, four monitoring periods out of twelve, the tree transpiration is larger than precipitation. In nine monitoring periods, drainage in the watershed is larger than precipitation or tree water transpiration. The measurements and calculations show that not much freshwater is left to recharge the fresh water lens underneath Marina Romea. Monthly monitoring of groundwater table elevation and salinity in the pine forest of Marina Romea from March 2007 to February 2008 shows that the groundwater table strongly fluctuates and groundwater salinity is constantly very high (up to 17.7 g/l). Analytical calculations based on the Ghyben Herzberg Dupuit principle suggest that even a small continuous annual recharge of 15 mm could form a 2-m deep freshwater lens in the unconfined aquifer. This freshwater lens is not present in the study area and this is due to the fact that tree water transpiration and drainage take out most of the fresh water coming into the watershed. In catchments like Marina Romea, water consumption by the (natural) vegetation and seasonal differences as well as the fact that fresh water lenses are limited in salty surroundings should be taken into account in water and forest management.     

Geological structure of the coastal aquifer in the southern part of the Gaza Strip,Palestine

The current study introduces the geological subsurface cross-sections in the southern part of the Gaza Strip to show the structure of the aquifer in the area. The cross-sections give evidence of four subaquifers of the coastal aquifer in the southern part of the Gaza Strip. These cross-sections give the natural reasons for the deterioration of the groundwater in the study area. The results show presence of clay lenses that prevent the replenishment processes of the aquifer of fresh water from the rainfall and returns flow from agricultural activities. Lithological formation was evident as one of the natural causes which accelerate destroying process of the coastal aquifer. The results also show that the structure of the aquifer causes the increase of the groundwater salinity in the Gaza Strip. The cross-sections had shown the shortage of storage capacity of high quantities of fresh water in the coastal aquifer in these areas. The role of lithological formation was evident as one of the natural causes to accelerate the process of destroying the coastal aquifer.     

Occurrence of salt water above fresh water in dynamic equilibrium in a coastal groundwater flow system near De Panne, Belgium

A salt water lens is found above fresh water under the shore between Dunkerque (France) and Nieuwpoort (Belgium). This inverse density distribution is in a dynamic equilibrium. It develops due to the infiltration of salt water on the back shore during high tide. Under this salt water lens, water infiltrated in the adjacent dune area flows towards the sea and discharges at the seabed. This water quality distribution differs from the classic salt water wedge under fresh water described in the literature. Here, the evolution to this water quality distribution is simulated with a density dependent numerical model. A large tidal range, shore morphology and a permeable groundwater reservoir are the main conditions for the observed water quality distribution. By altering these conditions, intermediate water quality distributions between the classic salt water wedge and the one discussed here develop. Based on these simulations, it is expected that similar kinds of inverse density distribution could be present in a number of coastal areas, which have tides, a gently sloping shore and a permeable substratum.     

Evaluating the salinity distribution of a shallow coastal aquifer by vertical multielectrode profiling (Denmark)

A monitoring system, including five groups of piezometers and five vertical multielectrode profiling probes (VMEP), has been installed in an aquifer beneath a coastal dune in Denmark. In order to assess the salinity distribution within the aquifer, geoelectrical data were gathered in March, June and September 2008, by measuring a dipole-dipole and gradient array using multielectrode profiling. Interpretation of the processed resistivity data was performed by regularized inversion using a one-dimensional, horizontally layered model of formation resistivity. The standard deviation on estimated layer log-resistivity was 0.01–0.03. By estimating two parameters of a power function, observed fluid conductivities derived from samples of porewater were related to corresponding estimated formation resistivities. The conductivity profiles correlate with a winter situation in March with high sea level, active recharge and significant wave activity, causing increased hydraulic heads, a thicker freshwater lens and salt water overlying freshwater close to the sea. In June, the thickness of the freshwater lens is reduced due to less recharge and prevailing offshore winds, imposing density-stable conditions and a sharper transition between fresh and brackish water. During the autumn, aquifer recharge is enhanced and hydraulic heads increase, resulting in a thicker freshwater lens.     

Determination of the distance of the fresh water–salt water interface extending into coastal confined aquifers

In a coastal zone an understanding of the distance of the fresh water–salt water interface and its extension inland is important for prevention of sea water intrusion. In this article estimating methods are described for calculating the distance of a fresh water–salt water interface in a coastal confined aquifer based on the submarine fresh groundwater discharge. This groundwater discharge is controlled not only by the aquifer properties and hydraulic head difference, but also by the position of the fresh water–salt water interface in the coastal zone. A homogeneous and isotropic coastal confined aquifer is considered and fresh groundwater flow in the confined aquifer is thought to be at a steady state. Two observation wells at different distances in a profile perpendicular to the coastline are required in calculation of the distance of the interface toe in the coastal zone. Four coastal confined aquifers with horizontal and sloping confining beds and with varying thickness are also considered. Reasonable results are obtained when examples are used to illustrate the application of the methods. The methods require hydraulic head data at the two wells and thickness of the confined aquifers, but the hydraulic conductivity and fresh groundwater flow rate of the confined aquifers are not needed.     

Measurement of vertical environmental-head profiles in unconfined sand aquifers using a multi-channel manometer board

The vertical hydraulic gradient in an unconfined sand aquifer frequently exceeds the horizontal gradient when measured close to a surface discharge boundary, around an abstraction bore or close to a saline interface. The vertical gradient can be efficiently investigated using a multi-channel manometer board connected to a bundled piezometer installed using hollow-stem-auger-drilling techniques. The design and construction of a manometer board is described. Manometer board data from a site in a 30-m-deep fresh-water aquifer adjacent to a pumping bore are described. The bore is screened in the lower part of the aquifer and the impacts of partial penetration are evident on the manometer board results. Data are then described from the centre of a coastal sand spit where fresh water overlies saline water. Fluid electrical conductivity measurements from the individual tubes of the bundled piezometer are used to derive fluid density at each of the bundled piezometer ports. The average fluid density of water above the mini-piezometer port at each depth is then calculated using Gaussian quadrature. The environmental-water head profiles are compared to point-water and fresh-water head profiles and the implications of the incorrect use of point-water or fresh-water head vertical profiles are clearly demonstrated.     

人工回灌条件下滨海砂质含水层渗透性的时空演变特征

人工回灌补给滨海含水层是海水入侵修复经常采用的工程措施,然而人工回灌条件下滨海砂质含水层经常出现渗透性显著降低的现象,其含水介质渗透性的时空演变规律仍不清楚。本文以青岛市大沽河下游咸水入侵区含水层砂样为研究对象,通过利用不同尺度的室内砂柱淡咸水驱替试验,对定水头和定流速条件下人工回灌咸淡水驱替过程中砂质含水层渗透性的时空演变特征进行了研究。结果表明：当淡水驱替咸水时含水介质的渗透性会发生显著变化,整个砂柱的渗透性先降低后回升,原因是回灌过程中砂柱中的黏土矿物发生释放、迁移、沉积;定水头条件下,在砂柱的前半段存在一个淘空区,渗透系数是初始渗透系数的1.6~2.0倍,砂柱其它部分渗透性是先降低再轻微回弹;定流速条件下,砂柱的渗透系数随时间的变化均呈现先降低后升高趋势,且砂柱各段离入水口的距离越远其渗透系数的值越小;砂柱黏粒含量的变化规律与渗透性的演化特征相吻合。研究成果可为人工回灌治理滨海含水层海水入侵提供一定的科学依据。     

Changes of freshwater-lens thickness in basaltic island aquifers overlain by thick coastal sediments

Freshwater-lens thickness and long-term changes in freshwater volume in coastal aquifers are commonly assessed through repeated measurement of salinity profiles from monitor wells that penetrate into underlying salt water. In Hawaii, the thickest measured freshwater lens is currently 262 m in dike-free, volcanic-rock aquifers that are overlain by thick coastal sediments. The midpoint depth (depth where salinity is 50% salt water) between freshwater and salt water can serve as an indicator for freshwater thickness. Most measured midpoints have risen over the past 40 years, indicating a shrinking lens. The mean rate of rise of the midpoint from 1999–2009 varied locally, with faster rates in highly developed areas (1.0 m/year) and slower rates in less developed areas (0.5  m/year). The thinning of the freshwater lenses is the result of long-term groundwater withdrawal and reduced recharge. Freshwater/salt-water interface locations predicted from measured water levels and the Ghyben-Herzberg principle may be deeper than measured midpoints during some periods and shallower during other periods, although depths may differ up to 100 m in some cases. Moreover, changes in the midpoint are slower than changes in water level. Thus, water levels may not be a reliable indicator of the amount of freshwater in a coastal aquifer.     

海岸带城市地下水分布特征

我国城市海岸带地下水类型和分布主要受控于陆地地质作用,尤以大地构造作用和河流地质作用为主导。松散沉积物类海岸带地下水为孔隙水,含水介质单一,空间变化大,地下水的赋存和分布规律亦相应复杂。以距今78万年晚更新世为界线,可将第四纪松散沉积物含水层组划分为上（浅）下（深）两层（部）。下部的全新统（Q4）和上更新统（Q3）含水岩组以微咸水、咸水多见;上部的中更新统（Q2）和下更新统（Q1）分布有淡水,部分地下淡水资源有一定的供水意义。基岩类海岸带地下水主要为裂隙水和岩溶水,多为淡水,其水资源量与当地的降水量和基岩入渗系数的大小有直接关系。除砂砾石台地的基岩类海岸带、少数溺谷型泥质海岸带的河谷内和碳酸盐岩分布区外,一般无集中供水意义。     

唐山曹妃甸浅层地下水水化学特征及咸化成因

为了查明曹妃甸浅层地下水水化学及咸化成因,采集研究区河水、地下淡水、微咸水、咸水、卤水、雨水和海水等不同类型水样,对其水化学组成、离子比、Piper三线图、吉布斯图、氢氧同位素组成及14C测年结果进行了分析。结果表明：(1)曹妃甸浅层地下水包括全新世沉积层潜水和晚更新世沉积层微承压水,且非原始封存在地层中而是形成于全新世中晚期。(2)地下潜水向海方向分布有淡水、微咸水、咸水水质类型,微承压水以咸水和卤水为主要水质类型;近冲洪积扇前缘水化学特征主要受岩石风化作用控制,围填海区及河口处水化学特征受海水混合作用控制,滨海平原区水化学特征主要受蒸发/结晶作用控制。(3)曹妃甸浅层地下水咸化过程主要是晚更新世以来海侵海退时期形成海洋蒸发盐经大气降水和河水多期溶滤所致,其盐分来源于海水蒸发盐,河口及围填海区地下潜水盐分主要来源于现代海水入侵。     

Estimation of the depth to the fresh-water/salt-water interface from vertical head gradients in wells in coastal and island aquifers

 An accurate estimate of the depth to the theoretical interface between fresh, water and salt water is critical to estimates of well yields in coastal and island aquifers. The Ghyben–Herzberg relation, which is commonly used to estimate interface depth, can greatly underestimate or overestimate the fresh-water thickness, because it assumes no vertical head gradients and no vertical flow. Estimation of the interface depth needs to consider the vertical head gradients and aquifer anisotropy that may be present. This paper presents a method to calculate vertical head gradients using water-level measurements made during drilling of a partially penetrating well; the gradient is then used to estimate interface depth. Application of the method to a numerically simulated fresh-water/salt-water system shows that the method is most accurate when the gradient is measured in a deeply penetrating well. Even using a shallow well, the method more accurately estimates the interface position than does the Ghyben–Herzberg relation where substantial vertical head gradients exist. Application of the method to field data shows that drilling, collection methods of water-level data, and aquifer inhomogeneities can cause difficulties, but the effects of these difficulties can be minimized. Received, April 1997 · Revised, January 1998 · Accepted, January 1998     

天津滨海新区围海造陆对沿海低地浅层地下水环境的影响

天津滨海新区被提到国家总体发展战略后,随着经济持续发展、城市化进程不断加速及产业转移,进行了大规模围海造陆,在拓展土地空间的同时,也造成了相当多的环境问题。利用滨海新区由陆到海的3条水文地质剖面获取的地下水动态变化监测数据和土壤含盐量测试结果,开展了围海造陆对沿海低地浅层地下水环境的影响研究。结果显示:1受围海造陆影响,对应的沿海低地浅层水位已经出现由陆到海逐渐增高的现象,造成地下水位反向倾斜,阻碍了地下水径流和排泄;2由陆到海浅表土壤全盐量出现逐渐增高的特征,在浅层地下水反向径流作用下,东部区域大量的盐分将被携带至沿海低地,使沿海低地盐渍化程度加重,严重影响到湿地保护和生态建设;3围海造陆对海岸带生态环境的影响是一个长期缓慢的过程,应持续监测近岸海域和陆域沿海低地生态环境的变化情况,以便提出合理的修复建议。     

Effects of climate change on groundwater resources at Shelter Island, New York State, USA

Rising sea levels due to climate change are expected to negatively impact the fresh-water resources of small islands. The effects of climate change on Shelter Island, New York State (USA), a small sandy island, were investigated using a variable-density transient groundwater flow model. Predictions for changes in precipitation and sea-level rise over the next century from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 report were used to create two future climate scenarios. In the scenario most favorable to fresh groundwater retention, consisting of a 15% precipitation increase and 0.18-m sea-level rise, the result was a 23-m seaward movement of the fresh-water/salt-water interface, a 0.27-m water-table rise, and a 3% increase in the fresh-water lens volume. In the scenario supposedly least favorable to groundwater retention, consisting of a 2% precipitation decrease and 0.61-m sea-level rise, the result was a 16-m landward movement of the fresh-water/salt-water interface, a 0.59-m water-table rise, and a 1% increase in lens volume. The unexpected groundwater-volume increase under unfavorable climate change conditions was best explained by a clay layer under the island that restricts the maximum depth of the aquifer and allows for an increase in fresh-water lens volume when the water table rises.     

Origin and evolution of a salty gypsum/anhydrite karst spring: the case of Poiano (Northern Apennines, Italy)

Poiano is the largest karst spring of the Emilia Romagna region (northern Italy). It drains an aquifer of unique properties composed of anhydrite with halite lenses at depth and gypsum at the surface (both with high NaCl content). Hydrogeological research has been undertaken using automatically recorded hourly data on temperature, electrical conductivity, and water level. Water feeding the Poiano spring is restricted within the gypsum/anhydrite outcrop between the Lucola, Sologno and Secchia rivers. Karstification in the Upper Secchia Valley only concerns the gypsum rocks mainly present along the border and in the shallower parts of the sulfate outcrop and does not appear to occur at depth. Data strongly support the hypothesis that the salt content in the spring water derives from active halokinetic movements. For the first time, the fundamental hydrogeological importance of the anhydrite part inside the sulfate rocks is demonstrated. If gypsum prevails over anhydrite the karst drainage network can extend deep into the rocks following a network of fractures and fissures. Instead, if in the deep parts of the aquifer anhydrite prevails over gypsum, the karst evolution cannot take place at depth and the structure of the underground drainage paths only follows near-surface paths in gypsum.     

Evaluating freshwater lens morphology affected by seawater intrusion using chemistry-resistivity integrated technique: a case study of two different land covers in Carey Island, Malaysia

Freshwater lenses are vital to small island communities but are susceptible to seawater intrusion due to the physical changes in the shoreline land cover. The effect of seawater intrusion and irrigation water on a coastal unconfined aquifer beneath naturally preserved mangrove and deforested mangrove-barren belt was investigated in Carey Island. Analysis of the total dissolved solids (TDS) and earth resistivity (ER) using a geochemistry-electrical integrated technique gave a TDS–ER relationship capable of predicting freshwater lens morphology affected by sea-irrigation water. The study result shows freshwater was fourfold thicker in close proximity of the mangrove forest than the mangrove barren area; the further the shoreline from the mangrove thickest section, the less vulnerable was the seawater intrusion and the more fresh the irrigation water, and hence the greater the freshwater availability potential.     

Hydrochemical evaluation of the coastal Quaternary aquifer east of Tripoli, Libya

Chemical analyses of more than 80 water wells penetrating the first aquifer in the coastal areas east of Tripoli indicate three different hydrochemical facies. Sodium chloride type water is mainly related to the encroachment of sea water as a result of excessive abstraction. The chemical interaction between groundwater and the aquifer materials led to the formation of calcium bicarbonate type water. Calcium chloride type is developed when the intruded sea water, very rich in Na ions, forced through the aquifer materials, and part of these cations replaced the Ca at the exchange sites of the clay minerals.Plotted against chloride, the concentrations of the Na, K, Ca, Mg, sulphate and bicarbonate species deviate considerably from the ideal mixing curves of fresh groundwater and sea water. Sulphate and bicarbonate enrichments are strongly related to the oxidation of sulphides and dissolution of calcite minerals present in the aquifer materials. Sea water intrusion and reverse cation exchanges reactions are the most important phenomena in the chemical evolution of the salinised groundwater.     

海岸带咸淡水界面位置确定方法的介绍

Ghyben-Herzberg公式依赖潜水位确定海岸带咸淡水界面位置,被广泛应用但存在误差。Hubbert公式严格描述突变界面问题的水头和界面位置之间的关系,但在实际中难以应用。通过考察咸淡水界面之下咸水带任意点的压力平衡关系和咸水带及淡水带任意点的水头描述得知,当地下水流处于稳定状态且满足Dupuit假设时,可以根据同一垂直线上界面之下咸水带任意点(含界面)的咸水测压水头和界面之上淡水带任意点(自潜水面至界面)的淡水测压水头确定滨海均质各向同性潜水含水层咸淡水界面的位置。Ghyben-Herzberg公式是这一方法的特例,描述界面位置的Hubbert公式也是该方法的一个特例。这一方法需要两个相邻的分别揭露淡水带和咸水带的测压孔。     

Numerical simulation of the influence of management alternatives of a projected reservoir on a small alluvial aquifer affected by seawater intrusion (Almuñécar, Spain)

The present study concerns the application of a numerical approach to describe the influence of anthropogenic modifications in surface flows (operation of a projected reservoir) on the freshwater-seawater relationships in a downstream coastal aquifer which has seasonal seawater intrusion problems (River Verde alluvial aquifer, Almuñécar, southern Spain). A steady-state finite element solution to the partial differential equation governing the regional motion of a phreatic surface and the resulting sharp interface between fresh water and salt water was used to predict the regional behavior of the River Verde aquifer under actual surface flow conditions. The present model approximates, with simple triangular elements, the regional behavior of a coastal aquifer under appropriate sinks, sources, Neumann and open boundary conditions. A steady-state solution to this numerical approach has been shown to precisely calculate freshwater heads, saltwater thicknesses, and freshwater discharges along steeply sloping coasts. Hence, the adequate treatment and interpretation of the hydrogeological data which are available for the River Verde aquifer have been of main concern in satisfactorily applying the proposed numerical model. Present simulated conditions consider steady-state yearly averaged amounts of external supplies of fresh water in order to determine the influences of the projected Otívar reservoir on the further behavior of the River Verde coastal aquifer. When recharges occur at the coastline, essentially because of freshwater deficits due to groundwater overexploitation, a hypothesis of mixing for the freshwater-saltwater transition zone is made in order to still allow the model to continue calculating groundwater heads under the sea level, and, as a consequence, the resulting seawater intrusion and recharges of saltwater from the sea. Simulations show that a considerable advance in seawater intrusion would be expected in the coastal aquifer if current rates of groundwater pumping continue and a significant part of the runoff from the River Verde is channeled from the Otívar reservoir for irrigation purposes.