A continuum model of layered rock masses with non-associative joint plasticity

Layered rock masses can be modelled either as standard, orthotropic continua if the layer bending can be neglected or as Cosserat continua if the influence of layer bending is essential. This paper presents a finite element smeared joint model based on the Cosserat theory. The layers are assumed to be elastic with equal thickness and equal mechanical properties. All the cosserat parameters are expressed through the elastic properties of layers, layer thickness and joint stiffness. Plastic-slip as well as tensile-opening of layer interface (joint) are accounted for in a manner similar to the conventional non-associative plasticity theory. As an application, the behaviour of an excavation in a layered rock mass is examined. The displacement and stress fields given by smeared joint models based on the Cosserat continuum and the conventional anisotropic continuum approaches are compared with those obtained from the discrete joint model. The conventional anisotropic continuum model is found to break-down completely when the effective shear modulus in the direction parallel to layering is low in comparison to the shear modulus of the intact layer, whereas the Cosserat model is found to be capable of accurately reproducing complex load–deflection patterns irrespective of the differences in shear moduli. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Inactive and relict rock glaciers of the Deboullie Lakes Ecological Reserve,northern Maine,USA

Lobate talus slopes in the Deboullie Lakes Ecological Reserve (DLER) of northern Maine exhibit parabolic profiles characteristic of inactive and relict talus‐derived rock glaciers. Vegetated rock glacier surfaces suggest that the landforms are no longer active, and lobes comprising two DLER rock glaciers document periods of past growth. Observations of perennial subsurface ice are supported by datalogger temperature measurements, indicating that sporadic permafrost exists throughout the DLER. We compare the DLER rock glaciers, along with similar features elsewhere in New England and adjacent Québec, to the modern alpine permafrost distribution. Results indicate that a mean annual temperature cooling of ～6°C is required to promote active rock glacier growth. Ages of plant remains recovered from the basal sediments of a local pond constrain deglaciation to before 11 320 ¹⁴C a BP, and core stratigraphy and organic content reveal that a periglacial environment persisted during the early postglacial era. Thus, we hypothesise that the DLER rock glaciers were active during Lateglacial time despite the lack of glacier activity in the region. We take this to suggest that north‐eastern US rock glaciers formed in response to mean annual temperatures skewed towards the frigid winters of the Younger Dryas chronozone. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

随机连续模型分析裂隙岩体耦合行为

利用能够反映岩体水力性质空间变异特性的随机连续模型对隧洞开挖过程中的裂隙岩体渗流-应力耦合过程进行了数值分析。随机渗透系数场通过顺序指示模拟方法生成。顺序指示法是一种非参数地质统计学技术,他允许输入任何形式的渗透系数概率分布而不需要对分布做任何假设。由随机模拟生成的渗透系数场被投影到有限元计算网格中进行耦合分析。力学响应使用基于连续介质的节理本构模型来反映岩体中软弱面的影响。结果表明,随机连续模型能够较好地预测裂隙岩体的稳定入渗率,水力性质的空间变异性对裂隙介质的耦合过程起着重要作用。在不排水条件下,隧洞每次开挖开始时,由于岩石应力重分布,孔隙水受到扰动,短时间内不能流动平衡,因此孔压会迅速上升,这对于围岩稳定是不利的。     

Quantitative study of landscape patterns in homogenous carbonate rock distributed regions in Guizhou

With the utilization of GIS software, research is conducted on （a） the characteristics of cells, fragmentation, and patch fractal of landscape based on homogenous carbonate rocks in Guizhou; （b） causes of the formation of these characteristics. It has been found that under the influence of lithology, the landscape of the study region as a whole shows consistency, yet embodies distinct diversity inside. The consistency is embodied in the following aspects： （a） the preponderant landscape consists of bushes and small woods; （b） secondary landscape is characteristic of forests and grounds covered with grass; （c） of all the patches making up the study area small patches are in the majority, with positive-skewed distribution of patches-as a result, steep peaks are characteristic of the charts showing the distribution of patches. The factor of scale is not taken into account in the study of patches. The shapes of patches tend to be regular with strong disturbances from human activities, and consequently, the values of fractal dimensions of landscape types tend to get smaller. The fragmentation of patches is more apparent in landscape under influence of human activities than the one without these disturbances. Compared with regions characteristic of homogenous dolomite, the characteristics of homogenous limestone areas are described as follows： （a） low utilization rate of water resource; （b） uneven distribution of diversified landscape; （c） weak resistance against disturbances from human activities; （d） the continuous degradation, ever-increasing fragmentation, intensification of spatial heterogeneity, and the deteriorating stability of landscape.     

The sedimentology and geomorphology of rock avalanche deposits on glaciers

This article describes and compares the deposits of four large landslides on two glaciers in Alaska using field mapping and remote sensing. Digital image analysis is used to compare the sedimentological characteristics of nearly 200 000 individual surface blocks deposited by three landslides at Black Rapids Glacier in 2002. The debris sheets of one of the three landslides on Black Rapids Glacier and a landslide emplaced on Sherman Glacier in 1964 are also investigated. The three landslides on Black Rapids Glacier have undergone little post‐depositional modification by glacier flow, whereas the Sherman Glacier landslide has been transported supraglacially up to ca 1 km over the past 46 years. The three debris sheets on Black Rapids Glacier have coarse blocky rims at their distal edges, and all four debris sheets have longitudinal flowbands characterized by differences in texture and produced by shearing within the moving debris. Elongated blocks are parallel to flow, except at the perimeter of the debris sheets, where they are aligned more perpendicular to flow. Blocks on the Sherman Glacier debris sheet have been reoriented by glacier flow. The matrix shows no systematic differences with depth or distance from the source. However, it appears to become coarser over a time scale of decades due to weathering.     

Biot固结理论中连续性方程形式的讨论

对于Biot固结方程中的连续性方程形式,不同的研究者存在分歧。在详细分析了Biot推导固结方程的过程后,发现其在推导固结方程时用到的弹性应变能密度函数存在错误。为了得到正确的连续性方程,采用两种思路进行了分析：①通过对土体单元变形的分析,得到了考虑土体颗粒和流体可压缩性的连续性方程;②按照Biot推导固结方程的思路,通过修正推导过程中用到的弹性应变能密度函数得到了连续性方程。上述两种思路得到的连续性方程是等价的,同时将上述连续性方程和其他研究者通过质量守恒得到的连续方程进行了对比,结果是一致的,从而确定了连续性方程的正确形式,并澄清了目前在Biot固结方程中的连续性方程上存在的分歧,所得结论可为固结方程的解析或数值计算提供依据。     

大巴山国家地质公园岩溶景观空间分层结构及受新构造运动的影响

大巴山国家地质公园岩溶景观种类齐全、组成系统完整,其发育和分布受构造控制作用显著。文章探讨大巴山国家地质公园岩溶景观特征及其空间分层结构受构造控制的作用机制,发现岩溶空间形态总体呈现掀斜式强烈抬升、河流深切的亚热带中低山峡谷岩溶特点,新构造运动间歇性隆升对岩溶景观垂向发育影响较为显著。岩溶发育的空间层位划分为三个高程层级,从下至上连续分段为440～700 m,700～1 200 m,1 200～1 890 m。空间分层结构反映某一阶段地壳总体处于相对稳定的时期,发育水平岩溶系统（溶洞）,后期地壳发生快速抬升,出现少量竖向岩溶系统（落水洞）,溶洞的分布与相应的侵蚀基准面（现代河床、各级阶地）相适应。根据发育层级推测,研究区至少经历过四次规模较大的间歇性快速抬升构造活动,各级夷平面先后受喜马拉雅运动第Ⅱ幕和第Ⅲ幕影响。喜马拉雅运动多次间歇性快速抬升过程中,丰沛的地下水和地表水下切并快速溶蚀形成多层剥蚀台地。在新构造运动相对稳定期,有充分的条件循环交替溶蚀导致垂向、水平岩溶均出现较大规模发育。      

长白山旅游区泥石流灾害研究

长白山旅游区为泥石流灾害频发地段，从地貌形态来看，其主要类型为山坡型泥充，其形成条件主要包括三个方面：区内广泛分布的倒石堆为泥石流的形成提供了主要物质来源，陡峭的地形提供了动力条件，丰富集中的降雨是诱发因素，这三个条件相互影响，缺一不可。分析表明，本区泥石流的空间分布规律与倒石堆的发育状况密切相关。     

云南会泽铅锌矿玄武岩与碳酸盐岩区景观格局分析

玄武岩与碳酸盐岩是岩浆岩和沉积岩的典型代表,两大岩类之间的差异性决定了两者具有不同的形状特征和抗风化能力。本文以会泽铅锌矿区为例,研究如何以定量方式表达这种差异。基于5m分辨率的Rapid Eye遥感影像,利用面向对象分类技术分离玄武岩和碳酸盐岩图斑,计算出代表斑块形态特征和破碎化信息的10个景观指数,并引用主成分分析法消除指数之间的信息冗余,更合理地表达指数意义。结果显示,面向对象分类技术分离出的裸岩斑块可单独计算景观指数,分析效果良好;景观指数分析和主成分分析结果一致,显示出玄武岩破碎度较高,形状呈不规则块状或团块状,碳酸盐岩破碎度比玄武岩低,形状呈现条带状,分析结果与两者的岩性特征以及遥感影像图形特征相符。研究对于岩浆岩和沉积岩的岩性自动识别有一定的指导作用。     

青海省治多县扎那日根岩体特征及构造意义

扎那日根岩体主要由早期的黑云母石英闪长岩和晚期的花岗闪长岩组成。花岗闪长岩中单颗粒锆石U-Pb年龄值为216±2Ma和217±7Ma(晚三叠世)。岩石富碱贫钛,属钙碱性岩系。微量元素特征表现为:富集大离子亲石元素K、Ba、Rb及高场强元素Th,相对于其它相邻元素而言,Sr、Nb、Ta略显亏损,Ti、P较强亏损,(87Sr/86Sr)i为0.70403~0.70463,εNd(t)为2.7~3.4。构造背景为火山弧花岗岩,成岩物质源于壳幔混合产物。     

圆形巷道围岩层裂或板裂化的等效连续介质模型及侧压系数的影响

为了避免均质和非均质模型不能较好地模拟围岩的层裂或板裂化现象,将岩石视为等效连续介质,即颗粒体材料。颗粒被视为弹性材料,而颗粒之间的界面破坏后被视为摩尔-库仑材料。颗粒和界面均被离散为正方形单元。采用FLAC研究了不同侧压系数时圆形巷道围岩中的剪切应变增量、最小、最大主应力等的分布规律。研究发现,颗粒体材料模型在压应力作用下诱发出的拉应力值接近于在模型边界上所施加的最大压应力,而最大压应力是所施加的最大压应力的数倍。这些结果意味着均质和非均质模型的计算结果是偏于不安全的。另外,最小主应力和剪切应变增量的等值线图均显示,这些量的高值区的距离大致相等,这与V形岩爆坑内的板裂化现象类似。围岩层裂现象的原因是环向的高压应力和径向的高拉应力的共同作用的结果。     

大陆型冰川与海洋型冰川物质平衡对比研究——以天山和阿尔卑斯山典型冰川为例

物质平衡是冰川对气候变化最直接的响应,是冰川变化的重要参数.大陆型冰川与海洋型冰川发育在不同的水热环境下,它们对气候变化的响应程度、过程和机理存在很大差异,因此在全球变暖背景下对这两类不同性质冰川物质平衡变化特征及其机理做一全面的对比研究意义重大.以东、西天山的乌鲁木齐河源1号冰川和图尤克苏冰川以及阿尔卑斯山东、中、西部的欣特雷斯冰川、Caresèr冰川和Sarennes冰川为参照冰川,在对比分析这五条参照冰川近60 a来物质平衡变化幅度差异和阶段性差异基础上,对大陆型冰川与海洋型冰川物质平衡变化特征及其机理进行了对比研究.结果表明:在物质平衡阶段性变化上,阿尔卑斯山参照冰川物质平衡变化具有相似的阶段性,而天山和阿尔卑斯山参照冰川之间以及天山内部两条参照冰川之间物质平衡阶段性变化存在很大的差异,可见,无论不同性质冰川还是同一性质的不同冰川,其物质平衡的阶段性变化都可能存在差异,这与不同冰川所处环境水热变化的时间差异有关,而与冰川性质无关;在物质平衡变化幅度上,海洋型冰川变化幅度明显大于大陆型冰川,原因是不同性质冰川发育的水热环境及其对气候变化敏感性差异;在前人对冰川加速消融机理的研究基础上,本文也讨论了大陆型冰川与海洋型冰川物质平衡变化的机理及其异同.     

Numerical modeling of dynamic rock fracture with a combined 3D continuum viscodamage‐embedded discontinuity model

This paper deals with numerical modeling of dynamic failure phenomena in rate‐sensitive quasi‐brittle materials, such as rocks, with initial microcrack populations. To this end, a continuum viscodamage‐embedded discontinuity model is developed and tested in full 3D setting. The model describes the pre‐peak nonlinear and rate‐sensitive hardening response of the material behavior, representing the fracture‐process zone creation, by a rate‐dependent continuum damage model. The post‐peak response, involving the macrocrack creation accompanied by exponential softening, is formulated by using an embedded displacement discontinuity model. The finite element implementation of this model relies upon the linear tetrahedral element, which seems appropriate for explicit dynamic analyses involving stress wave propagation. The problems of crack locking and spreading typical of embedded discontinuity models are addressed in this paper. A combination of two remedies, the inclusion of viscosity in the spirit of Wang's viscoplastic consistency approach and introduction of isotropic damaging into the embedded discontinuity model, is shown to be effective in the present explicit dynamics setting. The model performance is illustrated by several numerical simulations. In particular, the dynamic Brazilian disc test and the Kalthoff–Winkler experiment show that the present model provides realistic predictions with the correct failure modes and rate‐dependent tensile strengths of rock at different loading rates. The ability of initial embedded discontinuity populations to model the initial microcrack populations in rocks is also successfully tested. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

岩体的加、卸载状态与能量的分配关系

岩体是流变体,在高地应力的长时间作用下其内部非均匀应力随着时间自我松弛,逐渐趋向于静水压力状态。在这样的状态下,虽然其体积仍维持弹性,但丧失了进一步抵抗剪切变形的能力,处于流动的状态,其能量储存具有体积的特征。采用平面压缩模型,研究岩石在不同应力水平长期作用下的变形性状及能量分配关系,给出在快速卸荷条件下发生自持续动力断裂破坏条件,以期揭示深部岩体初始地应力水平（能量在体变及形变上的分配关系）对卸荷条件下岩体运动过程中表现的惯性、黏性及弹塑性变形的影响规律,为建立深部岩体加卸荷本构关系打下基础。     

峨眉山玄武岩的岩相与岩体结构

峨眉山玄武岩是西南地区水电工程的主要建基岩体，其岩体结构明显受其建造的控制，不同地区，不同岩相的玄武岩，由于岩石组合及原生结构特征等的差异，而具有不同的岩体结构特征。本文结合拟建金沙江溪洛渡水电工程，雅砻江官地水电工程等实例，从岩相角度分析了玄武岩岩相及原生结构及原生结构对其岩体结构的控制作用。     

近水平层状坝基岩体渗透结构及其工程意义

查明坝基岩体的渗透结构对于大坝工程防渗方案的制定具有重要意义。以黄河古贤水利枢纽工程近水平分布的红层坝基岩体为研究对象,使用“连续、高分辨率”压水试验数据处理与统计方法,分析了岩体透水率与高程、岩性及顺层剪切带的关系,阐明了坝基岩体的渗透结构,提出了工程防渗建议。研究发现,坝基岩体渗透结构表现出结构性和随机性双重特征。结构性表现为岩体透水率随高程的降低而减小;随机性表现为岩体透水率会因岩性和剪切构造等随机变化。对于河床及滩地坝基岩体,风化卸荷带底高程在450 m附近,1 Lu关键透水率指标界线的底高程位于340 m附近。对于岸坡坝基岩体,3 Lu关键透水率指标界线的底高程位于560～580 m。在坝基勘察深度范围内,350～360 m高程段连续分布具有一定厚度的软岩类岩体,剪切构造不发育且岩体透水微弱,可视为相对隔水层,对坝基防渗帷幕优化设计具有指示意义。文章提出的统计、分析方法具有一定普适性,可为类似工程所借鉴。     

戈壁景观区金矿化探普查找矿模式

传统（规范）的金矿化普查找矿方法在戈壁景观区存在着一些不足。为提高找矿成功率、增大找矿效用建立了区带金矿化找矿的目标体系、方法技术体系、工作网度、工作程序，并经优化组合后提出了系统的工作模式。     

川西高原鲜水河断裂带炉霍-道孚段泥石流分布特征

鲜水河断裂带炉霍-道孚段泥石流沿断裂带呈线性分布,以中高频泥石流为主,过渡型、稀性居多.断裂带内岩体破碎,次级构造发育且活动性强烈使主河床呈阶梯状,为泥石流灾害发育提供了势能转化、物质补给与水力运输条件.研究区泥石流沟(Ksn约140 m0.9)分布在主河陡峭指数高处(Ksn约66 m0.9),且中下游泥石流沟与其入汇...     

Slump debris flows in the Akovolwo Mountains area of Benue State,Nigeria

In September 1979, rain-induced complex landslides occurred in two separate localities along the slopes of the Akovolwo Mountains near Jato-Aka in the Kwande Local Government area of Benue State, Nigeria.The two movements developed on bedrock slopes covered by a veneer of colluvium and (or) residuum no more than 1.5 to 2m deep. Each started as a slump and graduated into a debris flow. The slump, extending downhill a short distance away from the head scarp, had been reconstituted into a debris flow as the initial movement (sliding movement) of the soil mass caused remoulding of the saturated moving mass into viscous debris-laden mud. The resulting mass moved partly along a pre-existing mountain stream channel and partly along a fresh channel it cleared in the savanna forest. At the break of slope, the mass of boulders was dumped and a trail of smaller fragments littered the channels towards the Katsina-Ala River.     

西藏桑日县巴玉水电站上游石冰川分布特征

全球变暖背景下石冰川运动加快,石冰川舌部沉积物堆积增加,导致泥石流的风险增大,石冰川可能是冰冻圈地区未来重要的致灾因素之一。随着社会经济和技术水平不断提高,人类活动范围不断扩大,越来越多的工程建设向偏远的高海拔山区推进,不可避免地面临石冰川问题。拟建于雅鲁藏布江中游桑日-加查峡谷段的一级电站巴玉水电站上游是否存在不稳定的石冰川分布受到关注。鉴于此,利用0.5 m分辨率GEOeye-1遥感影像,通过石冰川特有的纹理特征,结合SRTM提取的坡度信息,通过人工解译识别出拟建巴玉水电站上游的石冰川分布信息。结果表明：（1）石冰川集中在雅鲁藏布江北侧上游,共有27条,覆盖总面积为12.2±0.9 km²,平均面积为0.5 km²,平均长度为1 456 m,平均宽度为280 m。（2）石冰川分布在海拔4 570~5 720 m之间,平均末端海拔为4 920 m,属于舌状石冰川群,近50%石冰川处于活跃期,其中5条发生了前缘垮塌现象,可能引起泥石流等大型灾害。