Flow structure at an asymmetrical stream confluence

Measurements of downstream and cross-stream velocities at a small, asymmetrical stream confluence show that the structure of low-stage flows is influenced by the tributary/main stem momentum flux ratio, the total discharge of the incoming flows, and the bed morphology. Flow accelerates through the confluence during all three measured events. This acceleration is associated with a downstream reduction in channel capacity caused in part by the presence of a large bar along the inner bank of the downstream channel. As the momentum ratio increases, flow from the lateral tributary increasingly deflects flow from the main stream toward the outer channel bank within the confluence. As a result, the mixing interface between the converging flows also shifts outward. The large bar in the downstream channel deflects flow along the inner bank toward the adjacent scour hole, enhancing flow convergence downstream of the confluence and producing a region of flow separation adjacent to, or in the lee of the bar. The loci of maximum topographic deflection and flow separation vary with momentum ratio and total discharge.Secondary circulation within the downstream channel is characterized by a single large helical cell when the momentum ratio exceeds one, and weak surface-convergent helical cells on opposite sides of the mixing interface when the momentum ratio is less than one. Curvature of the flow, and thus the strength of helical motion, is greatest on the tributary side of the mixing interface. Although the flow events measured in this study did not exceed the threshold for sediment movement, the bed morphology at the confluence can be explained by the flow structure observed during these low-stage events, suggesting that formative flows may have similar downstream and cross-stream velocity fields.     

Erosion, deposition and basin-wide variations in stream power and bed shear stress

Field data from four separate locations indicate that the rate at which river channel gradient decreases downstream is fundamentally different in areas of long-term erosion and deposition. Gradient ( S ) and distance from the drainage divide ( x ) are related such that S is proportional to x ^φ. In areas of deposition φ<−3, whilst in areas of erosion φ>−1.1. These differences produce downstream increases and decreases in stream power and bed shear stress which also coincide with areas of erosion and deposition. This is the first time that such a basin-wide coincidence has been demonstrated.
A strong positive correlation between stream power, bed shear stress and bedload transport rates has been clearly shown by previous empirical studies of loose-bed channels. It is proposed that large-scale patterns of erosion and deposition in alluvial basins result from downstream changes in bedload transport rates, produced by the observed trends in these two parameters. If this proposal is to be fully tested, further work is needed to assess the affects of downstream fining of bed material, short-term fluctuations in discharge and downstream exchange of particles between the suspended load and bedload.     

黄河下游河床纵剖面形态及其地文学意义

本文通过河床比降和凹度两个指标,研究黄河下游河床纵剖面形态的自动调整作用,结果发现比降和下凹度多年平均值分别为1.28和1.35,偏离均值为1～2%,变化很小,说明黄河下游河床纵剖面以近于平行抬升的形态调整,标志着河道已进入了老年期发育阶段。对于研究河道发育史和老年期河道的特点,以及在治河上均有重要的理论和现实意义     

Three-dimensional structure of flow at a confluence of river channels with discordant beds

This paper presents three-dimensional data of the mean and turbulent structure of flow collected at a natural confluence of rivers with discordant beds to (1) describe the three-dimensional flow field of a natural junction of channels; (2) assess the role of changes in bed morphology occurring during transport-effective events on the structure of flow at a confluence; and (3) examine how the three-dimensional structure of flow varies with changes in the ratio of momentum flux between the two confluent streams. Three-dimensional measurements of velocity were reconstructed from the measurements obtained with an array of four, two-component electromagnetic current meters. Six detailed velocity profiles were taken at five cross-sections in a wide range of flow conditions. The mean field of flow is characterised by (1) the acceleration of flow in the downstream portion of the post-confluence channel, but by lower velocities upstream in the mixing layer area; (2) a stagnation zone at the apex of the junction; (3) a zone of flow deviation, and strong fluid upwelling, close to the avalanche face and at the margin of the tributary mouth bar; and (4) reduced velocities over the depositional bar at the downstream junction corner. The position and extent of these zones vary with changes in the ratio of momentum flux. Very high intensity of turbulence (peaks up to 50%) and turbulent kinetic energy were observed in the mixing layer region. Distortion of the mixing layer, characteristic of flow where bed discordance is present between the two tributary channels, was evident from mean and turbulent flow data. This field study suggests that the effects of bed discordance on flow, sediment transport, and the resultant bed morphology must be incorporated into conceptual and numeric models of these sites of complex flow.     

Fluvial process and the establishment of bottomland trees

The effects of river regulation on bottomland tree communities in western North America have generated substantial concern because of the important habitat and aesthetic values of these communities. Consideration of such effects in water management decisions has been hampered by the apparent variability of responses of bottomland tree communities to flow alteration. When the relation between streamflow and tree establishment is placed in a geomorphic context, however, much of that variability is explained, and prediction of changes in the tree community is improved.The relation between streamflow and establishment of bottomland trees is conditioned by the dominant fluvial process or processes acting along a stream. For successful establishment, cottonwoods, poplars, and willows require bare, moist surfaces protected from disturbance. Channel narrowing, channel meandering, and flood deposition promote different spatial and temporal patterns of establishment. During channel narrowing, the site requirements are met on portions of the bed abandoned by the stream, and establishment is associated with a period of low flow lasting one to several years. During channel meandering, the requirements are met on point bars following moderate or higher peak flows. Following flood deposition, the requirements are met on flood deposits ;high above the channel bed. Flood deposition can occur along most streams, but where a channel is constrained by a narrow valley, this process may be the only mechanism that can produce a bare, moist surface high enough to be safe from future disturbance. Because of differences in local bedrock, tributary influence, or geologic history, two nearby reaches of the same stream may be dominated by different fluvial processes and have different spatial and temporal patterns of trees. We illustrate this phenomenon with examples from forests of plains cottonwood (Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera) along meandering and constrained reaches of the Missouri River in Montana.     

Bed load transport in an obstruction-formed pool in a forest, gravelbed stream

This paper examines channel dynamics and bed load transport relations through an obstruction-forced pool in a forest, gravel-bed stream by comparing flow conditions, sediment mobility, and bed morphology among transects at the pool head, centre, and tail. Variable sediment supply from within and outside of the channel led to a complex pattern of scour and fill hysteresis. Despite the large flood magnitude, large portions of the bed did not scour. Scour was observed at three distinct locations: two of these were adjacent to large woody debris (LWD), and the third was along the flow path deflected by a major LWD obstruction. Bed material texture showed little change in size distribution of either surface or subsurface material, suggesting lack of disruption of the pre-flood bed. Fractions larger than the median size of the bed surface material were rarely mobile. Sediment rating relations were similar, although temporal variation within and among stations was relatively high. Relations between bed load size distribution and discharge were complex, showing coarsening with increasing discharge followed by fining as more sand was mobilized at high flow. Lack of local scour in the pool combined with bed load fining and net fill by relatively fine material implied that the dominant sources of mobile sediment were upstream storage sites and local bank collapse. Patterns of flow, channel dynamics, and sediment mobility were strongly affected by a LWD flow obstruction in the pool centre that created turbulent effects, thereby enhancing entrainment and transport in a manner similar to scour at bridge piers.     

红山水库上游河床及支流调整分析

以西辽河红山水库修建后上游河道调整为例，说明了除来水来沙等的变化所引起的河流系统调整外，存在由于河流系统可调要素之间的相互联系，相互作用，在水库水位上升后造成的溯源淤积发展中，主、支流河道、上、下游河段冲淤相互影响，槽，滩淤积相互转换，地生态系统调整的影响下，产生的可调要素的复杂多向的调整过程。     

NOTICE: INTERNATIONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

The focus of this research is the development of a model which explains channel pattern variability in streams. Since channel pattern is commonly regarded as a qualitative phenomenon, the research employs a logistic regression model, which is advocated as an alternative to traditional graphic/discriminant analysis, since the concepts of threshold and instability have very natural expressions in the logistic regression framework. The results demonstrate that channel gradient and mean discharge can effectively explain channel pattern (i.e., whether the channel is single or multithreaded) in an environment where there is a small range of bed material size. Sediment sorting is also shown to be related to channel pattern in the study environment. Models using valley gradient rather than channel gradient are shown to be distinctly inferior, and no advantage is found in using a stream power measure as opposed to separate gradient and discharge measures. [Key Words: fluvial geomorphology, stream channels, channel patterns, models.]     

Underlying gravel layers in a large sand bed river and their influence on downstream-dam channel adjustment

Due to the changes in environmental factors during a river's historical development, underlying gravel layers are found in many large plain rivers. When the buried depth of this gravel layer is within the reach of down-cutting by clear water scour after reservoir construction, it may be exposed and exert a far-reaching influence on channel adjustment. In Hanjiang River, the longest tributary of the Yangtze River in China, down-cutting has been greatly reduced and even stopped, due to the total change of bed material composition. The exposure of a gravel layer results in a dramatic increase in the bed's hydraulic roughness, so the channel slope may increase after a decline during the period prior to the exposure of the gravel layer. Moreover, the exposed gravel layer increases the erosion resistance of bed material, making a lower relative erosion resistance of bank to bed material. Where the bank's erosional resistance is weak, this may lead to a tendency towards channel widening.     

Comparative assessment of three approaches for deriving stream power plots along long profiles in the upper Hunter River catchment, New South Wales, Australia

The downstream distribution of stream power is derived and analysed for 11 different streams in the upper Hunter River catchment, Australia. Stream long profiles were produced in a GIS environment using DEM data and catchment area–discharge analysis. These profiles were analysed using three approaches, namely long profile smoothing, curve fitting and a theoretical model. The methodology for deriving stream power profiles using these three approaches is discussed. The long profile smoothing method provides a good approximation of the subcatchment variability in stream power trends. The curve fitting method shows that higher-order exponential curves provide a better fit for long profile data. For the streams of the upper Hunter River catchment, second-order exponential curves fit well with significantly less error. The curve fitting method predicts a bimodal (upstream and midstream) distribution of stream power, which is a deviation from our earlier understanding of a single midstream peak. The theoretical approach provides a mathematical expression of the observed bimodal stream power distribution. The bimodal distribution emphasises the erosion potential of headwater reaches. The resultant stream power distribution provides a catchment-scale characterisation of the distribution of available energy in any given system. Using these approaches, the variability of stream power in headwater reaches is explained by discharge variability, while variability in midstream and downstream reaches is related to high variability in channel gradient.     

Differential recovery from the effects of a 100-year storm: Significance of long-term hillslope–channel coupling; Howgill Fells, northwest England

A 100-year storm that occurred in 1982 caused major geomorphic changes in the main valleys of the northern Howgill Fells, northwest England. Those changes, which were documented at that time, involved extensive hillslope gully erosion, alluvial fan sedimentation, and substantial sediment input to the stream systems. The streams channels, which had hitherto been dominantly single-thread, relatively stable channels, responded in many reaches by switching to wide shallow unstable locally braided channels. Over the 20 years since the event there has been a partial recovery to channel geometries similar to the pre-flood conditions, however the degree of recovery contrasts between two neighbouring valleys, Bowderdale and Langdale. The channel of Bowderdale Beck has largely recovered. Flood sedimentation zones have largely stabilised and new single-thread channels have cut through most of the former braided reaches. In some places channel widths remain higher than the pre-flood values, and locally recovery has been modified by a lagged complex response. In Langdale, recovery is only partial with many reaches demonstrating sustained instability over the 20-year post-flood period. Furthermore, the overall spatial patterns suggest some reach-to-reach transfer of coarse sediment, shifting zones of instability downstream. The contrasts between the two valleys appear to relate to different hillslope-to-channel coupling characteristics, themselves inherited from late Pleistocene conditions. These contrasts are also evident in the longer-term (post-1949) history of channel change and stability in these two streams, indicative of the higher intrinsic instability of the Langdale system.     

Effects of Woody Debris on Channel Morphology and Sediment Storage in Headwater Streams in the Great Smoky Mountains,Tennessee-North Carolina

Coarse woody debris (CWD) is an important component of headwater streams, however, few studies have investigated the geomorphic effects of CWD in the southern Appalachians. In the Great Smoky Mountains, debris slides supply large volumes of CWD and sediment to low-order streams. This study investigates the effect of CWD on bankfull channel dimensions and in-channel sediment storage along second-order streams. Comparisons are made between streams that have experienced recent debris slides and those that have not. CWD channel obstructions are larger but less frequent along debris-slide-affected streams. Dendrochronological evidence indicates that CWD can remain in channels for over 100 yr. Relatively short residence times of CWD along debris-slide-affected streams suggest that logs are frequently flushed through these streams. CWD causes channel widening along all study streams, but the volume of sediment stored in the channel behind CWD obstructions is up to four times greater than the volume of sediment represented by bank erosion associated with CWD. Two large log jams formed by debris slides at tributary junctions stored approximately 4000 m³ of sediment. Sediment stored by CWD was finer than mean bed particle size, and thus represents a significant sediment source when CWD obstructions are breached.     

Understanding confluence dynamics in the alluvial Ganga–Ramganga valley, India: An integrated approach using geomorphology and hydrology

Confluence dynamics in the Ganga–Ramganga valley in the western Ganga plains of India has been studied through systematic mapping of channel configuration using multi-date remote sensing images and topographic sheets for a period spanning nearly 100 years (1911–2000). The study has been supplemented with a detailed analysis of the channel morphology, hydrology and sediment transport characteristics of the different rivers. Our study indicates that new confluences have been created during this period and that the confluence points have moved both upstream and downstream on a historical time scale. Apart from major avulsions, other processes that have controlled the confluence movements include river capture, cut-offs and aggradation in the confluence area. River capture occurs through lateral bank erosion and migration, encroachment by the master stream and beheading of smaller rivers resulting in upstream movement of the confluence point. Another process which influences the upstream migration of the confluence is an increase in sinuosity of one of the channels near the confluence and then a cut-off. Aggradation in the confluence area and local avulsions of the primary channel in a multi-channel system seem to be the major process controlling the downstream movement of the confluence point. Analysis of channel morphology, hydrology and sediment budget for the study period supports our interpretations.     

High-Resolution Analysis of Debris Flow–Induced Channel Changes in a Headwater Stream,Ashio Mountains,Japan∗

Coupled hillslope and channel processes in headwater streams (HWS) lead to rapid changes in channel dimensions. Changes in channel size and shape caused by a debris flow event along the length of a headwater stream in the Ashio Mountains, Japan, were captured with the aid of repeat high-definition surveys using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) techniques. The HWS was classified into three distinct reaches below the debris flow initiation zone. A large knickpoint separated an upper bedrock reach from a colluvial reach along the midsection of the drainage. The colluvial reach transitioned to a lower bedrock reach that terminated at the master stream. Cross-sectional and morphometric analyses revealed no statistically significant changes in channel size or shape along the upper bedrock reach. Debris flow erosion generated significant differences in channel size and shape along a colluvial reach. Sediment bulking associated with erosion along the colluvial reach led to increases in channel size along the lower bedrock reach, but no statistical differences in channel shape. Morphometric analyses from the TLS point cloud revealed that debris flow erosion produced a distinct nonlinear change in channel dimensions in the downstream direction within the HWS. Variations in channel substrate along the length of HWS contributed directly to this nonlinear response. The episodic nature and nonlinearity of erosion associated with the current debris flow event highlights the importance of debris flows in general in understanding the transport of sediment, coarse to fine particulate organic material, and large woody debris, which are critical to the long-term management of riverine environments. TLS sampling methods show promise as one component of a multianalytical approach needed to continuously monitor and manage the dynamics of HWS.     

城市河流形态及稳定性演变研究进展

人为干扰导致的城市河流退化在地理科学和水文学领域引发了广泛关注, 针对城市河流形态及演变过程的研究成为退化河流生态修复的一项重要内容, 然而, 目前国内相关基础理论的系统梳理相对缺乏。本文回顾了半个多世纪以来城市河流形态及稳定性演变的研究成果, 从研究内容和方法两方面对不同城市化阶段河流形态及稳定性变化的特征和原因进行总结, 同时评述了不同研究方法的特点与局限。本文认为, 城市化进程改变了河流自然演化过程, 破坏了河流原有形态及稳定性, 其中, 沉积和径流体系变化是其根本原因。为了更好地运用河流演变机理进行河流修复, 学者们发展了河流分类体系, 主要包括形态导向法、过程导向法和综合分类法, 重点从河流退化的地貌形态、沉积和径流变化过程、河流演变的时间周期等方面概述各分类体系的优缺点, 阐述具有预测功能的河流分类体系不断完善的过程。本文通过梳理城市河流演变的研究成果, 以期为中国城市河流修复与管理提供科学依据和现实借鉴。     

上荆江枯水位对河床冲刷及水库调度的综合响应

为系统揭示长江中游近期枯水情势及其对三峡水库蓄水的直接和间接响应,本文以冲刷剧烈、枯水位降幅最大的上荆江为例,通过统计其不同形式枯水位的变化特征,建立了水位下降与河床冲刷、水库不同运行方式的相关关系。结果表明,沙市站同流量枯水位几乎与枯水河槽河床平均高程等幅下降,枝城站枯水位下降幅度较小与本底河床形态、河床粗化及航道整治工程有关。上荆江汛前枯水位降幅、最低水位及极枯水位历时等枯水情势会受到三峡水库补水调度的影响,这种补水效应沿程递减,至沙市站补水调度仍然无法抵消河床下切对枯水位造成的影响。     

Geomorphic effects of rural-to-urban land use conversion on three streams in the Central Redbed Plains of Oklahoma

This research evaluates the impact of rural-to-urban land use conversion on channel morphology and riparian vegetation for three streams in the Central Redbed Plains geomorphic province (central Great Plains ecoregion) of Oklahoma. The Deep Fork Creek watershed is largely urbanized; the Skeleton Creek watershed is largely rural; and the Stillwater Creek watershed is experiencing a rapid transition from rural to urban land cover. Each channel was divided into reaches based on tributary junctions, sinuosity, and slope. Field surveys were conducted at transects in a total of 90 reaches, including measurements of channel units, channel cross-section at bankfull stage, and riparian vegetation. Historical aerial photographs were available for only Stillwater Creek watershed, which were used to document land cover in this watershed, especially changes in the extent of urban areas (impervious cover).The three streams have very low gradients (< 0.001), width-to-depth ratios < 10, and cohesive channel banks, but have incised into red Permian shales and sandstone. The riparian vegetation is dominated by cottonwoods, ash, and elm trees that provide a dense root mat on stream banks where the riparian vegetation is intact. Channels increased in width and depth in the downstream direction as is normally expected, but the substrate materials and channel units remained unchanged. Statistical analyses demonstrated that urbanization did not explain spatial patterns of changes in any variables. These three channels in the central Redbed Plains are responding as flumes during peak flows, funneling runoff and the wash-load sediment downstream in major runoff events without any effect on channel dimensions. Therefore, local geological conditions (similar bedrock, cohesive substrates and similar riparian vegetation) are mitigating the effects of urbanization.     

Flow and sediment processes in a cutoff meander of the Danube Delta during episodic flooding

This article analyzes the water and suspended solid fluxes through a straightened meander of the southern branch of the Danube Delta (the St. George branch) during episodic flooding. The Mahmudia study site corresponds to a vast natural meander which was cut off in 1984–1988 by an artificial canal opened to shipping. The meander correction accelerated fluxes through the artificial canal and dramatically enhanced deposition in the former meander. After his formation, the cutoff meander acted as sediment storage locations, essentially removing channel and point bar sediments from the active sediment budget of the main channel. Increases in slope and stream power in reaches upstream and downstream have also occurred, but to a lesser degree. During the one-hundred-year recurrent flood in April 2006, bathymetry, flow velocity and discharge data were acquired across several sections of both natural and artificial channels with an acoustic Doppler current profiler (aDcp Workhorse Sentinel 600 kHz, Teledyne RDI) in order to investigate the distribution of the flow and sediment and his impact on sedimentation in a channelized reach and its adjacent cutoff. The contrasting hydro-sedimentary processes at work in both channels and bifurcation/confluence nodal points are analyzed from the measured flux distribution, morphological profiles and velocity and concentration patterns. In the cutoff, a diminishing of the intensity of the flow velocity (c. 50%) and of the SSC was observed correlated with the aggradation of the river bed. In the bifurcation/confluence nodal points and in the artificial canal were observed the most intensive hydrodynamic activity (high flow velocity, SSC concentration, degradation of the river bad). Both the event-scale and long-term morphological trends of the alluvial system are discussed analyzing the boundary shear stress and SSC variability. Excess boundary shear stress in the sub-reaches directly affected by cutoffs resulted in scour that increased downstream bed material load. These high sediment loads play a key role in driving morphological adjustments towards equilibrium in the cutoff channel.The approach followed in this paper combines detailed episodic in-situ aDcp measurements and robust numerical 1D modeling in order to provide a practical comprehension of the relevant morphodynamical processes. The 1D model reproduces robustly the continuity of hydrodynamical variables along the streamwise axes of the two-channel network. The simulated are used in the paper for highlighting reach-scale morphological processes, at both event and long-term scales.     

Riparian reforestation and channel change: A case study of two small tributaries to Sleepers River, northeastern Vermont, USA

Measurements of two small streams in northeastern Vermont, collected in 1966 and 2004–2005, document considerable change in channel width following a period of passive reforestation. Channel widths of several tributaries to Sleepers River in Danville, VT, USA, were previously measured in 1966 when the area had a diverse patchwork of forested and nonforested riparian vegetation. Nearly 40 years later, we remeasured bed widths and surveyed large woody debris (LWD) in two of these tributaries, along 500 m of upper Pope Brook and along nearly the entire length (3 km) of an unnamed tributary (W12). Following the longitudinal survey, we collected detailed channel and riparian information for nine reaches along the same two streams. Four reaches had reforested since 1966; two reaches remained nonforested. The other three reaches have been forested since at least the 1940s. Results show that reforested reaches were significantly wider than as measured in 1966, and they are more incised than all other forested and nonforested reaches. Visual observations, cross-sectional surveys, and LWD characteristics indicate that reforested reaches continue to change in response to riparian reforestation. The three reaches with the oldest forest were widest for a given drainage area, and the nonforested reaches were substantially narrower. Our observations culminated in a conceptual model that describes a multiphase process of incision, widening, and recovery following riparian reforestation of nonforested areas. Results from this case study may help inform stream restoration efforts by providing insight into potentially unanticipated changes in channel size associated with the replanting of forested riparian buffers adjacent to small streams.     

Recent large-magnitude floods and their impact on valley-floor environments of northeastern Yellowstone

The Lamar River watershed of northeastern Yellowstone contains some of the most diverse and important habitat in the national park. Broad glacial valley floors feature grassland winter range for ungulates, riparian vegetation that provides food and cover for a variety of species, and alluvial channels that are requisite habitat for native fish. Rapid Neogene uplift and Quaternary climatic change have created a dynamic modern environment in which catastrophic processes exert a major influence on riverine–riparian ecosystems. Uplift and glacial erosion have generated high local relief and extensive cliffs of friable volcaniclastic bedrock. As a result, steep tributary basins produce voluminous runoff and sediment during intense precipitation and rapid snowmelt. Recent major floods on trunk streams deposited extensive overbank gravels that replaced loamy soils on flood plains and allowed conifers to colonize valley-floor meadows. Tree-ring dating identifies major floods in 1918, ca. 1873, and possibly ca. 1790. In 1996 and 1997, discharge during snowmelt runoff on Soda Butte Creek approached the 100-year flood estimated by regional techniques, with substantial local bank erosion and channel widening. Indirect estimates show that peak discharges in 1918 were approximately three times greater than in 1996, with similar duration and much greater flood plain impact. Nonetheless, 1918 peak discharge reconstructions fall well within the range of maximum recorded discharges in relation to basin area in the upper Yellowstone region. The 1873 and 1918 floods produced lasting impacts on the channel form and flood plain of Soda Butte Creek. Channels may still be locally enlarged from flood erosion, and net downcutting has occurred in some reaches, leaving the pre-1790 flood plain abandoned as a terrace. Gravelly overbank deposits raise flood-plain surfaces above levels of frequent inundation and are well drained, therefore flood-plain soils are drier. Noncohesive gravels also reduce bank stability and may have persistent effects on channel form. Overall, floods are part of a suite of catastrophic geomorphic processes that exert a very strong influence on landscape patterns and valley-floor ecosystems in northeastern Yellowstone.