An energy budget for waves and turbulence within an inversion

Several features of the maintenance of breaking gravity waves and turbulence in a marine inversion are examined. A formulation is proposed for a critical Richardson number based on a mutual response of the mean and turbulent states to a wave-like disturbance. The energy balance, based on averaged aircraft soundings, is examined to ascertain the order of magnitude of the component terms in the vicinity of a contemporaneous radar echo. Some physical mechanisms are discussed which may explain some aspects of the sustained existence of the echo layers.After preparation of this paper, a considerable number of pertinent and up-dated results bearing on waves and turbulence in stable layers were published as Volume 4 ofBoundary-Layer Meteorology, April 1973. The present discussion should be considered in relation to these papers and of Gossardet al. (1973) and Metcalf and Atlas (1973) in particular.     

Wave and turbulence structure in a disturbed nocturnal inversion

Acoustic sounder and tower data obtained at the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory (BAO) are used to examine several features of the wave and turbulence structure associated with a disturbed nocturnal inversion. General features, including mean fields and Richardson number, for the case selected for this study are presented. Spectral analysis of the tower data reveals a separation of energy into wavelike and turbulent fluctuations. Analysis of the heat flux, however, shows upward counter-gradient fluxes in the vicinity of a low-level jet and near the top of the inversion. Cospectral analysis shows that the major contribution to the upward heat flux occurs at frequencies that would normally be considered characteristic of waves. In some cases, the upward flux is associated with a phase shift between vertical velocity w and fluctuating temperature θ different from the quadrature relation that would be expected of internal waves. Time series analysis reveals that these unexpected positive fluxes occur in relatively short bursts. Analysis of time series of θ and w in other cases, as well as inspection of acoustic sounder records, shows that sometimes such upward fluxes can result from a combination of wave motion and horizontal temperature advection. In this case the advection is associated with a shallow cold front.     

The structure of an inversion above a convective boundary layer as observed using high-power pulsed doppler radar

The high-power Defford radar has been upgraded to provide Doppler information regarding the motion of echoes from weak refractive index inhomogeneities within the optically clear atmosphere. A case study is presented in which data from the radar are used to derive the detailed velocity structure in and above the planetary boundary layer. These data are analysed to show how convective circulations in the boundary layer can perturb the height of a shallow inversion overlying it, thereby producing local enhancements of wind shear and a decrease in dynamic stability within the inversion. The measurements were obtained as part of a Boundary-Layer Project in which simultaneous measurements were made using fast-response instruments suspended from a tethered balloon within the region scanned by the radar. The balloon-borne probes showed that the most intense turbulence and fluctuations of temperature and refractivity were encountered when radar-detected hummocks in the height of the inversion were advected through the probes. The fine-scale turbulence measurements within the perturbed inversion are consistent with the existence of Kelvin-Helmholtz billows.     

Numerical simulations of wind and temperature structure within an Alpine lake basin, Lake Tekapo, New Zealand

Summary High-resolution numerical model simulations have been used to study the local and mesoscale thermal circulations in an Alpine lake basin. The lake (87km²) is situated in the Southern Alps, New Zealand and is located in a glacially excavated rock basin surrounded by mountain ranges that reach 3000m in height. The mesoscale model used (RAMS) is a three-dimensional non-hydrostatic model with a level 2.5 turbulence closure scheme. The model demonstrates that thermal forcing at local (within the basin) and regional (coast-to-basin inflow) scales drive the observed boundary-layer airflow in the lake basin during clear anticyclonic summertime conditions. The results show that the lake can modify (perturb) both the local and regional wind systems. Following sunrise, local thermal circulations dominate, including a lake breeze component that becomes embedded within the background valley wind system. This results in a more divergent flow in the basin extending across the lake shoreline. However, a closed lake breeze circulation is neither observed nor modelled. Modelling results indicate that in the latter part of the day when the mesoscale (coast-to-basin) inflow occurs, the relatively cold pool of lake air in the basin can cause the intrusion to decouple from the surface. Measured data provide qualitative and quantitative support for the model results.     

Resonant trapped gravity waves and turbulent patches in an inversion layer

Instability of resonant trapped gravity waves is proposed as the mechanism responsible for the creation of turbulent patches in the inversion capping a well developed convective layer. The plume circulation of the convective layer results in a periodic forcing at the base of the inversion layer; trapped gravity waves in resonance with such forcing are considered. Good agreement with experimental results is obtained.Now at the Istituto di Fisica della Università di Urbino Via S. Chiara 61100 Urbino (Ps.) Italy.     

Isopycnal mixing and convective adjustment in an ocean general circulation model

Abstract

Convective adjustment is examined in an ocean general circulation model which uses an isopycnal mixing parametrization. It is found that the use of an explicit convective adjustment scheme is not needed in a variety of equilibria and climate change scenario simulations. A numerical mechanism is proposed to explain this as well as the localized appearance of ‘negative’ diffusion.     

Climatic variability within an equilibrium greenhouse simulation

A simulation of the possible consequences of a doubling of the CO₂ content of the atmosphere has been performed with a low resolution global climatic model. The model included the diurnal and seasonal cycles, computed sea ice amount and cloud cover, and used implied oceanic heat fluxes to represent transport processes in the oceans. A highly responsive 2-layer soil moisture formulation was also incorporated. Twenty year equilibrated simulations for control (1 × CO₂) and greenhouse (2 × CO₂) conditions were generated. The major emphasis of the analysis presented here is on the intra-annual and interannual variability of the greenhouse run with respect to the control run. This revealed considerable differences from the time-averaged results with occasions of marked positive and negative temperature deviations. Of particular interest were the periods of negative temperature departures compared to the control run which were identified, especially over the Northern Hemisphere continents. Temporal and spatial precipitation and soil moisture anomalies also occurred, some of which were related to the surface temperature changes. Substantial sea surface temperature anomalies were apparent in the greenhouse run, indicating that a source of climatic forcing existed in addition to that due to doubling of the CO₂. Comparison of the intra-annual and interannual variability of the control run with that of the greenhouse run suggests that, in many situations, it will be difficult to identify a greenhouse signal against the intrinsic natural variability of the climatic system.     

Equilibrium theory of the planetary boundary layer with an inversion lid

The maintenance of an elevated inversion in steady flow above a cold, rotating surface is shown to be possible for a certain range of the buoyancy number bfV _g, where b is the buoyant acceleration appropriate to the density deficiency of the fluid above the inversion, f is Coriolis parameter and V _gis geostrophic velocity (so that fV _gis also horizontal pressure gradient in kinematic units). The height of the inversion lid is determined by a balance of surface stress and buoyancy, in a way which may be deduced from laboratory experiments. With the aid of such empirical evidence a theory is constructed for the layer below the inversion lid. The cross-isobar angle of ground-level stress is found to increase with the buoyancy number, to a limiting value of 90, by which time the inversion descends to the ground. Under typical conditions, a temperature difference of order 10C is necessary to eliminate the possibility of an equilibrium, elevated inversion lid and reduce ground level wind stress to a vanishingly small value.Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Contribution #3011On leave from the University of Waterloo, Ontario     

Observation of organized structure in turbulent flow within and above a forest canopy

Ramp patterns of temperature and humidity occur coherently at several levels within and above a deciduous forest as shown by data gathered with up to seven triaxial sonic anemometer/thermometers and three Lyman-alpha hygrometers at an experimental site in Ontario, Canada. The ramps appear most clearly in the middle and upper portion of the forest. Time/height cross-sections of scalar contours and velocity vectors, developed from both single events and ensemble averages of several events, portray details of the flow structures associated with the scalar ramps. Near the top of the forest they are composed of a weak ejecting motion transporting warm and/or moist air out of the forest followed by strong sweeps of cool and/or dry air penetrating into the canopy. The sweep is separated from the ejecting air by a sharp scalar microfront. At approximately twice the height of the forest, ejections and sweeps are of about equal strength.In the middle and upper parts of the canopy, sweeps conduct a large proportion of the overall transfer between the forest and the lower atmosphere, with a lesser contribution from ejections. Ejections become equally important aloft. During one 30-min run, identified structures were responsible for more than 75% of the total fluxes of heat and momentum at mid-canopy height. Near the canopy top, the transition from ejection of slow moving fluid to sweep bringing fast moving air from above is very rapid but, at both higher and lower levels, brief periods of upward momentum transfer occur at or immediately before the microfront.     

Magnitude and sources of variation in albedo within an alpine tundra

Summary Temporal and spatial variations of albedo in a mid-latitude alpine tundra are assessed in order to develop a classification of surface cover mapping units which is useful for surface climate simulations. The largest temporal changes in albedo result from alterations in moisture conditions at the tundra surface associated with snowpack ripening and precipitation. Surface albedo varies under high atmospheric transmission conditions (clear skies) from 0.168 to 0.205; under low transmission conditions (cloudy) there was little variation in the surface albedo with the solar zenith angle and the value of the albedo was approximately equal to that under clear skies when 45° >z > 30°.Spatial variation of albedo within commonly used alpine surface cover mapping units is large, due to the roughness and heterogeneity of the tundra surface. Small differences between mean albedo among vegetated units (mean values range from 0.15 to 0.19) and large ranges of values within units (average 25% of the mean value) preclude differentiation of the commonly used surface cover mapping units (except snow) on the basis of shortwave reflectivity. Aggregation of the vegetated surface cover units based on height and density of plants yields three classes (krummholz, dense low vegetation, and sparse low vegetation) for which differences between mean albedo among all combinations of pairs of mapping units (4 units, 3 vegetative plus snow) are statistically significant.

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Zusammenfassung Zeitliche und räumliche Unterschiede der Albedo einer alpinen Tundra der mittleren Breiten werden herangezogen, um eine kartographische Klassifikation der Oberflächendecke zu entwickeln, die für klimatische Simulationen von Nutzen sein kann.Die auffälligsten zeitlichen Schwankungen der Albedo resultieren aus einer Veränderung der Feuchtigkeitsbedingungen an der Tundraoberfläche in Verbindung mit der Alterung der Schneedecke und Niederschlag. Die Oberflächenalbedo schwankt bei starker atmosphärischer Transmission (klarer Himmel) von 0.168 bis 0.205; bei geringer atmosphärischer Transmission (wolkig) zeigt sich nur wenig Veränderung der Oberflächenalbedo, wobei der Sonnenzenithwinkel und der Albedowert bei 45° >z > 30° in etwa den Werten bei klarem Himmel gleichen.Die räumliche Variation der Albedo innerhalb der üblicherweise herangezogenen kartographischen Einheiten der alpinen Oberflächendecke ist aufgrund der Rauhigkeit und Heterogenität der Tundraoberfläche groß. Bei Vergleich der Vegetationseinheiten untereinander zeigen sich nur geringfügige Unterschiede der durchschnittlichen Albedo (die Durchschnittswerk bewegen sich zwischen 0.15 und 0.19), während die Bandbreite der Werte innerhalb der jeweiligen Einheiten (im Durchschnitt 25% des Mittelwerts) hoch ist. Dies verhindert eine Differenzierung der allgemein angewandten kartographischen Klassifizierung der Oberflächendecke (Schnee ausgenommen) auf der Grundlage kurzwelliger Reflektivität.Eine Einteilung der Vegetationseinheiten hinsichtlich Höhe und Pflanzendichte ergibt drei Klassen (Krummholz, dichter Niederbewuchs und spärlicher Niederbewuchs), wobei die Unterschiede der Albedomittelwerte aller paarweisen Kombinationen der kartographischen Einheiten (4 Einheiten: 3 Vegetationstypen und Schnee) statistische Signifikanz aufweisen.

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With 3 Figures     

一次冬季江淮气旋逗点云区的雷达回波和气流结构分析

2016年2月12—13日,受冷空气和江淮气旋暖锋锋生影响,山东出现一次极端暴雨雪天气过程,全省有42个站的降水突破同期历史记录。采用多种观测以及WRF模式模拟的热力学变量,基于拉格朗日方法的气流轨迹模式(HYSPLIT v4.9),分析了气旋逗点云区云系的演变特征、降水不同阶段气旋逗点云区气流结构和轨迹特征。结果表明:(1)江淮气旋逗点云区由4条带状回波合并发展形成,气旋形成后降水回波呈气旋式旋转、拉长,形成多条中尺度强降水带。(2)降雨阶段气旋逗点头从下到上主要由来自东海、黄海、日本海或内陆的边界层气团,来自中国南海和中南半岛的暖湿气团以及来自西亚和东欧的干冷气团组成。气旋逗点头内有3个降水区:北部和南部暖湿气团浅薄、层结稳定,为层状云降水区;中部暖湿气团深厚,中高层有条件性不稳定发展,为深厚的对流云降水区。气旋逗点头中南部的干冷空气来自高层的西亚气团,而剖面北部有来自中层(即青藏高原东部气团)的干冷空气,气团明显变性,对降水贡献大。(3)降雪阶段气旋逗点头从下到上主要由西伯利亚气团、东海气团、南海气团和孟加拉湾气团叠置而成。气旋逗点头西部层状降水区分两部分:北部为降雪区,南部为降雨区。降雪与降雨阶段的明显差别是冷湿的东海气团下面是否有西伯利亚冷气团。降雪区西伯利亚气团上空东海气团深厚,南海气团浅薄;降雨区南海气团深厚,东海气团浅薄。      

Impact of vertical mixing induced by small vertical scale structures above and within the equatorial thermocline on the tropical Pacific in a CGCM

Oceanic vertical mixing is known to influence the state of the equatorial ocean which affects the climate system, including the amplitude of El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Recent measurements of ocean currents at high vertical resolution capture numerous small vertical scale structures (SVSs) within and above the equatorial thermocline that contribute significantly to vertical mixing but which are not sufficiently resolved by coarse resolution ocean models. We investigate the impact of the vertical mixing induced by the SVSs on the mean state and interannual variability in the tropical Pacific by using a coupled general circulation model. The vertical mixing induced by the SVSs is represented as an elevated vertical diffusivity from the surface down to the 20 °C isotherm depth, a proxy for the depth of the thermocline. We investigate different forms for the elevated mixing. It is found that the SVS-induced mixing strongly affect the mean state of the ocean leading to a warming of sea surface temperature (SST) and associated deepening and sharpening of the thermocline in the eastern equatorial Pacific. We find that the SST warming induced by the elevated mixing is further strengthened through the Bjerknes feedback and SST-shortwave flux feedback. We also find a reduction in the number of large amplitude ENSO events and in certain cases an increase in the skewness of ENSO.     

Experiments on scalar dispersion within a model plant canopy part I: The turbulence structure

This is the first of a series of three papers describing experiments on the dispersion of trace heat from elevated line and plane sources within a model plant canopy in a wind tunnel. Here we consider the wind field and turbulence structure. The model canopy consisted of bluff elements 60 mm high and 10 mm wide in a diamond array with frontal area index 0.23; streamwise and vertical velocity components were measured with a special three-hot-wire anemometer designed for optimum performance in flows of high turbulence intensity. We found that:

1. The momentum flux due to spatial correlations between time-averaged streamwise and vertical velocity components (the dispersive flux) was negligible, at heights near and above the top of the canopy.
2. In the turbulent energy budget, turbulent transport was a major loss (of about one-third of local production) near the top of the canopy, and was the principal gain mechanism lower down. Wake production was greater than shear production throughout the canopy. Pressure transport just above the canopy, inferred by difference, appeared to be a gain in approximate balance with the turbulent transport loss.
3. In the shear stress budget, wake production was negligible. The role of turbulent transport was equivalent to that in the turbulent energy budget, though smaller.
4. Velocity spectra above and within the canopy showed the dominance of large eddies occupying much of the boundary layer and moving downstream with a height-independent convection velocity. Within the canopy, much of the vertical but relatively little of the streamwise variance occurred at frequencies characteristic of wake turbulence.
5. Quadrant analysis of the shear stress showed only a slight excess of sweeps over ejections near the top of the canopy, in contrast with previous studies. This is a result of improved measurement techniques; it suggests some reappraisal of inferences previously drawn from quadrant analysis.

     

A Study of the Relationship between Low-level Jet and inversion Layer over an Agroforest Ecosystem in East China Plain

1.IntroductionWindprofilewiththerelevantlow--leveljet(LLJ)isoneofthemostimportantfactorsthatcharacterizethestructureoftheatmosphericboundarylayer.TheLLJswerereportedinEurope(SladkovicandKanter,1977;Krausetal.,1985),Africa(Anderson,1976;Hart,etal.,1978),NorthAmerica(Stull,1988;Arrittetal.,1997),Australia(MalcherandKraus,1983;Garratt,1985)andEastAsia(Wangetal.,1996;ChenandHsu,1997).DifferentinvestigatorsuseddifferentcriteriaforidentifyingtheLLJs.SomerequiredwindspeedgreaterthanaParti…     

Spectral Short-circuiting and Wake Production within the Canopy Trunk Space of an Alpine Hardwood Forest

Using synchronous multi-level high frequency velocity measurements, the turbulence spectra within the trunk space of an alpine hardwood forest were analysed. The spectral short-circuiting of the energy cascade for each velocity component was well reproduced by a simplified spectral model that retained return-to-isotropy and component-wise work done by turbulence against the drag and wake production. However, the use of an anisotropic drag coefficient was necessary to reproduce these measured component-wise spectra. The degree of anisotropy in the vertical drag was shown to vary with the element Reynolds number. The wake production frequency in the measured spectra was shown to be consistent with the vortex shedding frequency at constant Strouhal number given by f _vs = 0.21ū/d, where d can be related to the stem diameter at breast height (dbh) and ū is the local mean velocity. The energetic scales, determined from the inflection point instability at the canopy–atmosphere interface, appear to persist into the trunk space when , where C _du is the longitudinal drag coefficient, a _cr is the crown-layer leaf area density, h _c is the canopy height, and β is the dimensionless momentum absorption at the canopy top.     

Macro- and micro-scale mixing in chemical reactive plumes

The average dispersion of a plume in the atmospheric boundary layer is strongly influenced by atmospheric turbulence. Atmospheric turbulence determines also concentration fluctuations due to turbulent meandering by large scale turbulent eddies and in-plume fluctuations, due to smaller scale eddies. Conversion of NO to NO₂ in a plume is influenced by micro-scale mixing, due to the concentration fluctuation correlation % MathType!MTEF!2!1!+-% feaafeart1ev1aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn% hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr% 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq-Jc9% vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0-yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr-x% fr-xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaa0aaaeaaca% qGobGaae4tamaaCaaaleqabaGaaeymaaaakiaab+eadaqhaaWcbaGa% ae4maaqaaiaabgdaaaaaaaaa!3AF4!\[\overline {{\rm{NO}}^{\rm{1}} {\rm{O}}_{\rm{3}}^{\rm{1}} } \] and macro-scale mixing, the mixing in of ambient air containing O₃ into the plume.The study of turbulent meandering, in-plume fluctuations, microscale and macro-scale mixing will contribute to a better understanding of concentration fluctuations in general.