Coastal management in Tanga, Tanzania: a decentralized community-based approach

This paper describes a new initiative in coastal management in northeastern Tanzania. The region is within the equatorial part of the Western Indian Ocean. The priority environmental issues being faced include declining fish catches, use of destructive fishing techniques, mangrove cutting and coastal erosion. There is a widespread perception among the users of the coastal resources that management of these issues is inadequate. This programme initiative is developing flexible, community-based approaches to identifying the problems and to take achievable actions. The programme provides training in a wide range of skills and appropriate technical methods for government officials, extension workers and villagers. A collaborative process is evolving that includes participatory appraisals, village environmental committees, facilitation by government extension workers, technical advise and supervision by district technical teams, and regional-wide workshops with key players. Village initiatives taken so far include new by-laws, gear inspection, reef zoning and closures. A number of village mariculture projects are being piloted.     

A collective approach to Pacific islands fisheries management: Moving beyond regional agreements

The sustainable management and profitable development of the Pacific island tuna fisheries is the key ocean governance challenge for the Pacific islands region in the short and medium term. Resolving these challenges is fundamental to the long term future of the region and its ability to implement oceans governance across all resource and conservation concerns.     

Coastal governance in North West Europe: An assessment of approaches to the European stocktake

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) necessitates not only an understanding of the coastal environments to be managed but also an understanding of the nature of the governance systems in place. The latter not only vary between individual European Member States but also within States. This paper explores the governance systems in operation and focuses on the approaches taken in completing the ICZM stocktakes and strategies in North West Europe, as required by the European ICZM Recommendation. The paper not only synthesises existing European documentation, but also incorporates some of the key experiences of ICZM from the COREPOINT project and its partners. The paper findings suggest that effective inter-organisational linkages and coordinated efforts are required to deliver ICZM and the European ICZM Recommendation's principles of good governance. However, such aspects are largely non-existent in North West Europe.     

A governance perspective on the large marine ecosystem approach

The large marine ecosystem (LME) concept and approach has had a global impact on marine ecosystem-based management. The LME approach provides a framework for assessing and monitoring LMEs and is based on five modules: productivity, fish and fisheries, pollution and ecosystem health, socioeconomics, and governance. It appears that the LME approach is also being used to structure interventions to bring about change. Its appropriateness for the latter purpose is questioned. The major concerns are that the LME approach is not consistent with current thinking about enabling governance and its compartmentalized structure does not facilitate effective governance intervention. Current thinking on good governance suggests that it is more appropriate to approach governance interventions at the LME scale through multi-level governance policy cycles.     

Atlantic sea scallop management: an alternative rights-based cooperative approach to resource sustainability

The effectiveness of the US Atlantic sea scallop fishery regulations has resulted in recovery from a biological standpoint. However, due to excessive harvest capability and regulatory inefficiencies, the industry is facing substantial harvesting costs and, hence, economic inefficiency. The main reason is that most regulations or restrictions do not take into account the fundamental importance of the property rights for inducing behavior more consonant with aggregate as well as individual rationality. This article conceptualizes the role and importance of property rights structures in their application to Atlantic sea scallop fishery management. Additionally, embryonic industry efforts in developing an enhancement program for this fishery may point to the need for more cooperative, area-based management strategies. By doing so, two important elements for achieving greater production and value from the scallop fishery are identified. First, establishing an ownership structure of private property rights in the form of Territorial User Rights in Fishing (TURFs) and second, having fishermen cooperate under an organizational structure, such as a harvesters’ cooperative. These elements imply that an alternative, rights-based cooperative approach may become a compatible governance arrangement and provide an incentive for the rational management of the scallop fishery.     

Coastal planning on the Atlantic fringe,north Norway: the power game

The article describes an on-going struggle between local planning authorities, regional fishery authorities and environmental authorities over the management of the Norwegian coastal zone. Particular reference is made to a recent planning project in Nordland County where 18 peripheral communes with weak planning traditions joined forces to produce structure plans for their coastal areas. Concepts of rationality and power are used as points of departure for an interpretation of the actions of the parties involved. The discursively rational nature of the planning project, embodying principles of consensus building, social integration and personal growth, is contrasted to the strictly instrumental behaviour of regional fishery and environmental authorities. The article also relates conflicts between communes and regional sector authorities to the power structure of the field of coastal management and the habitus of the different institutional actors. The actions of the fishery authorities are seen as a defence of their monopoly of the production of ideology in marine management, while the actions of the communes are interpreted as a bid by the periphery for greater control over local resources.     

A 4D-variational approach applied to an eddy-permitting North Atlantic configuration: Synthetic and real data assimilation of altimeter observations

The increasing number of oceanic observations calls for the use of synthetic methods to provide consistent analyses of the oceanic variability that will support a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. In this study, a 1/3° eddy-permitting model of the North Atlantic (from 20°S to 70°N) is combined with a 4D-variational method to estimate the oceanic state from altimeter observations. This resolution allows a better extraction of the physical content of altimeter data since the model spatial scales are more consistent with the data than coarser assimilation exercises because of a lower error in model representativity. Several strategies for the assimilation window are tested through twin experiments carried out under the following conditions: different window lengths and either a quasi-static (also known as progressive) variational assimilation with progressive extension of the window, or a simpler direct method without prior assimilation. From our set of experiments, the most efficient strategy is the use of both a simple direct assimilation method and a 90-day window. The assimilation of synthetic altimeter data constrains the model-temperature, -salinity and -velocity fields mainly over the first 1300 m where the error is the largest. Improvements occur not only in quiescent regions, but also in more energetic meso-scale regimes. Despite the existence of model- and surface forcing-errors as well as large errors in the first guess, the assimilation of real altimeter data proves to be consistent with our twin experiments. Indeed, the analyses show a better detachment of the Gulf Stream, weaker regional biases and more accurate positions for meso-scale structures. Independent hydrographic data (Argo floats and CTD cruises) and transports estimates along the OVIDE 2002 cruise show an improvement of the analysed oceanic state with respect to the assimilation-free case though water mass properties are still incorrectly represented. After assimilation, the North Atlantic heat transport in the model is in good agreement with independent estimates based on hydrographic data.     

Strengthening regional governance to protect the marine environment in Northeast Asia: From a fragmented to an integrated approach

Northeast Asia is failing in its attempts to protect its regional seas from irreversible ecological damage and contamination. At the policy level, the regional architecture for marine protection has several glaring structural problems that need to be identified and resolved in an expeditious and politically sensitive manner. Although the UNDP/GEF Yellow Sea Large Marine Ecosystem Project (YS LME) and the Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP) are the two most likely institutions from which to build the next phase of regional marine cooperation, synergies between the two institutions remain limited. Both institutions are endowed with unique opportunities, challenges and limitations that must be taken into full consideration when planning the next step of coordinated action for regional marine protection. For the purpose of developing a more effective phase of marine cooperation in Northeast Asia, this paper advocates the formation of a Marine Environmental Community based on an integrated approach towards Northeast Asia's regional marine programs. This will facilitate improvements in funding, policy coordination through high level policy dialogue, transparency and efficiency of information sharing systems and full participation of all the coastal states in the region.     

Regional oceans governance mechanisms: A review

The development of regional governance for the protection of the environment, sustainable use of natural resources and conservation of its biodiversity is unquestionably a cornerstone of international environmental law and policy. With regard to marine and coastal issues, it has mainly been taking place through Regional Seas programmes, Regional Fishery Bodies and Large Marine Ecosystems mechanisms. Based on a similar geographical approach, however, these regional mechanisms raise concerns relating to their coordination and efficiency, and possibly overlap in what they aim to achieve. This paper provides a review of existing regional oceans governance mechanisms, assessing their individual and collective capacities to move towards ecosystem-based management, and highlighting options to make the regional landscape more coherent and effective.     

Northern opportunities: A strategic review of Canada's Arctic icebreaking services

Climate change presages increasingly ice-free waters in the Canadian Arctic and fundamental reconfiguration of Asia–Europe and Asia–US East Coast marine transportation networks via the Northwest Passage (NWP). Retreating sea ice will impact the annual re-supply of goods to northern communities, natural resource development, cruise ship and adventure tourism activity, and the fishing industry. Reviews of infrastructure to support increased shipping activity and support future developments highlight an ageing Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) icebreaker fleet. This paper aims to debate the need for, and provision, ownership and management of Arctic icebreaking services required to serve a NWP. It reports perceptions by 110 experts of future marine activity in the Canadian Arctic and CCG services, principally Arctic icebreaking, in terms of their effectiveness and efficiency. The extent of possible private involvement is identified and evaluated. The requirements needed to ensure timely and uninterrupted marine transportation from vessels operating in these waters are highlighted.     

A tool to navigate overlaps in fragmented ocean governance

Implementation of marine ecosystem-based management requires improved understanding of existing governance, including gaps and overlaps resulting from fragmented management. Focusing on overlaps, this paper presents a technique using text analysis to assist in the identification of agencies and laws involved in overlaps from a system perspective. The overlaps analysis uses term frequency counts on ocean laws and regulations in conjunction with relevant agency authority. Such information delivered in a transparent user-friendly presentation can help policymakers and other constituents of ecosystem-based management to find existing overlaps as a step to facilitate improved coordination.     

Trade measures and the combat of IUU fishing: Institutional interplay and effective governance in the Northeast Atlantic

The use of trade measures to combat illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing in the Northeast Atlantic has evolved from unilateral denial of the landing of fish taken outside international quota arrangements to a multilateral Scheme of Control and Enforcement under the North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC). International trade rules have not constrained this development, mostly due to successful management of the interplay between international resource management and trade regimes. States protect resource management objectives from such constraint by inserting clauses that establish a normative hierarchy, or they employ various means for adapting IUU measures to the ‘environmental window’ of the global trade regime. The fact that regional states have introduced trade restrictions only when non-restrictive or less restrictive measures have failed enhances such compatibility, as do the gradual shift from unilateral to multilateral measures and the rise in transparency, openness and target-state involvement. None of those features reduces the effectiveness of regional trade measures; they minimize tension with trade commitments and largely strengthen their clout in the struggle to combat IUU fishing in the Northeast Atlantic.     

The non-statutory approach to coastal defence in England and Wales: Coastal Defence Groups and Shoreline Management Plans

The paper examines the aims and objectives behind the development of the non-statutory shoreline management process in England and Wales. The roles played by Coastal Defence Groups and associated Shoreline Management Plans will be examined as well as their perceived benefits and shortcomings encountered by those in both policy and practice. The paper concludes that, although not panacea, there have and will continue to be significant improvements in the planning and management of coastal defence since the emergence of these groups and plans in England and Wales.     

Fragmentation in high seas fisheries: Preliminary reflections on a global oceans governance approach

Notwithstanding the wide range of actions taken to strengthen the legal regime of international fisheries, overexploitation and the risk of depletion of stocks have been strong concerns for decades. Indeed, the regime of international fisheries law is currently not rooted in sustainability, and it does not adequately take into consideration the impact of fishing activities on the wider marine environment. One of the main causes lies in fragmentation of international fisheries law: a lack of coordination between instruments and institutions, and gaps in effective coherent structures for fisheries management. Areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), including the high seas, are particularly prone to this lack of coordination and integration.One alternative to reach a durable management of high seas fisheries might be found in a ‘global oceans governance approach’. This paper explores how this approach could impact the fragmented regime of fisheries. It suggests that governance-based perspectives underline concepts rooted in adaptability and interactions, concepts that suggest to approach international fisheries law not as a static set of rules but as an evolutive process. Reflecting on an overarching goal of coordination and possible management challenges in ABNJ provides an interesting starting point to develop a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of oceans governance on the fragmented legal regime of high seas fisheries. We now need to see how to give effect to governance, a task that remains, at this point, a work in progress.     

应用“908”专项成果推进江苏沿海科学发展

一 江苏"908"专项简介 为贯彻实施<全国海洋经济发展规划纲要>,促进我国海洋经济持续快速发展,实现"全面建设小康社会,加快推进社会主义现代化目标",针对我国近海海域综合调查程度和基本状况认识度比较低的情况,提出开展"我国近海海洋综合调查与评价"专项.     

Attainment of ecosystem based governance in European waters—A State property rights regime approach for Ireland

On Ireland's continental shelf, as well as within its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), there are significant biodiversity hotspots including those associated with Cold Water Corals (CWC). Some of these ecosystems enjoy little or no actual protection and are subject to the effects of open access. Sectorally driven initiatives, a recalcitrant attitude to environmental law and inadequate governance, have added to the conditions that have facilitated years of damage by fishers and other actors from many States. A review of the current governance regime, influenced primarily by the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP), is presented. Failings of this regime are highlighted by the destruction of some biodiversity hotspots associated with vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs), an externality primarily arising from the effects of deepwater fishing. While exploring some of the principles relating to the institution of property rights, this paper makes a link between property rights, the public trust doctrine and sovereign rights. The paper suggests that such biodiversity systems are the property of citizens of the individual States in whose area of jurisdiction they occur. The paper argues for an Irish State property rights regime as part of an ecosystem approach within a nested institutional architecture. This has important implications for the governance of biodiversity such as that associated with CWC and for the development of an Irish National Oceans Policy.     

Network approach for understanding small-scale fisheries governance: The case of the Chilean coastal co-management system

Recent studies have focused on the study of social networks among local resource users, but few have attempted to study co-management networks. The objective of the research was to assess the Chilean shellfish co-management system from an organizational network perspective. Starting with one detailed case study, representatives of 38 small-scale fisher associations from two administrative regions were interviewed to investigate: (1) networks of actors in each co-management case, (2) the functions of these actors in co-management, and (3) fisher perceptions about Chile's co-management arrangement. Results indicate that decision-making is highly centralized and power is concentrated in government, with little horizontal exchange and cooperation among fisher associations. However, the network approach indicates the presence of a rich set of players, some seven sets of actors by function. Grassroots management innovations are hampered by the existing co-management structure, suggesting that the system may benefit from a modification of the policy to allow greater learning-by-doing and flexibility.