Thermal evolution of an extensional detachment as constrained by organic metamorphic data and thermal modeling: Graz Paleozoic Nappe Complex (Eastern Alps)

Following Early Cretaceous nappe stacking, the Eastern Alps were affected by late-orogenic extension during the Late Cretaceous. In the eastern segment of this range, a Late Cretaceous detachment separates a very low- to low-grade metamorphic cover (Graz Paleozoic Nappe Complex, GPNC) above a low- to high-grade metamorphic basement. Synchronously, the Kainach Gosau Basin (KGB) collapsed and subsided on top of the section.Metamorphism of organic material within this section has been investigated using vitrinite reflectance data and Raman spectra of extracted carbonaceous material. In the southern part of the GPNC, vitrinite reflectance indicates a decrease in organic maturity towards the stratigraphic youngest unit. The remaining part of the GPNC is characterized by an aureole of elevated vitrinite reflectance values and Raman R2 ratios that parallels the margins of the GPNC. Vitrinite reflectance in the KGB shows a steep coalification gradient and increases significantly towards the western basin margin. The observed stratigraphic trend in the southern GPNC is a result of deep Paleozoic to Early Cretaceous burial. This maturity pattern was overprinted along the margins by advective heat and convective fluids during Late Cretaceous to Paleogene exhumation of basement rocks.During shearing, the fault zone was heated up to ca. 500 °C. This overprint is explained by a two-dimensional thermal model with a ramp-flat fault geometry and a slip rate of 1 to 1.5 cm/year during 5 Ma fault movement. The collapse basin above the detachment subsided in a thermal regime which was characterized by relaxing isotherms.     

Modeling of gas generation from the Alam El-Bueib formation in the Shoushan Basin, northern Western Desert of Egypt

The Shoushan Basin is an important hydrocarbon province in the northern Western Desert, Egypt, but the burial/thermal histories for most of the source rocks in the basin have not been assigned yet. In this study, subsurface samples from selected wells were collected to characterize the source rocks of Alam El-Bueib Formation and to study thermal history in the Shoushan Basin. The Lower Cretaceous Alam El-Bueib Formation is widespread in the Shoushan Basin, which is composed mainly of shales and sandstones with minor carbonate rocks deposited in a marine environment. The gas generative potential of the Lower Cretaceous Alam El-Bueib Formation in the Shoushan Basin was evaluated by Rock–Eval pyrolysis. Most samples contain sufficient type III organic matter to be considered gas prone. Vitrinite reflectance was measured at eight stratigraphic levels (Jurassic–Cretaceous). Vitrinite reflectance profiles show a general increase of vitrinite reflectance with depth. Vitrinite reflectance values of Alam El-Bueib Formation range between 0.70 and 0.87 VRr %, indicating a thermal maturity level sufficient for hydrocarbon generation. Thermal maturity and burial histories models predict that the Alam El-Bueib source rock entered the mid-mature stage for hydrocarbon generation in the Tertiary. These models indicate that the onset of gas generation from the Alam El-Bueib source rock began in the Paleocene (60 Ma), and the maximum volume of gas generation occurred during the Pliocene (3–2 Ma).     

Thermal maturity in the Central European Basin system (Schleswig-Holstein area): results of 1D basin modelling and new maturity maps

Thermal maturity information has been compiled for one of the deepest parts of the Central European Basin system, the Schleswig-Holstein area in northern Germany. New vitrinite reflectance data were obtained and old data were evaluated from a total of 31 wells. Furthermore, numerical 1D basin modelling was performed in order to interpolate/extrapolate vitrinite reflectance data to base Zechstein and base Keuper. For these two horizons, maturity maps were finally compiled revealing large differences in present-day thermal maturity within the basin. For example, vitrinite reflectance at base Zechstein ranges from greater than 4.5% in the Glueckstadt Graben to less than 1% in the northern part of the study area. Highest thermal maturity of base Keuper occurs in the West Holstein Trough and in the northern part of the Glueckstadt Graben. The timing of maturation is greatly affected by the complex tectonic evolution of the area. For six key wells distributed over the entire study area, burial and temperature histories as well as evolution of maturity were evaluated using 1D basin modelling. Deepest burial and maximum temperatures occurred either during Jurassic, Upper Cretaceous or Neogene times in these wells. Only some parts of the sedimentary package in Schleswig-Holstein show a significant increase in maturity during the Tertiary leading to additional hydrocarbon generation and entrapment.     

Maturity modeling and burial history reconstruction for Garau and Sargelu formations in Lurestan basin,south Iran

The Upper Jurassic Sargelu and the Cretaceous Garau formations are important source rocks in the Lurestan basin, southwest Iran. In this study, the maturity evolution and burial history of these source rocks are investigated using 1D modeling in 15 wells within the Lurestan basin. These models are calibrated using temperature and vitrinite reflectance readings at well locations. Results indicate that thermal maturity of studied source rocks increases towards the northwest of the Lurestan basin and is the lowest over the Anaran High. The present-day level of maturity suggests that these formations are suitable candidates for shale gas resources in the Lurestan basin.     

多种剥蚀厚度恢复方法在内蒙古雅布赖盆地侏罗系和白垩系中的应用及其地质意义

剥蚀厚度恢复是进行盆地埋藏史、热演化史、油气成藏等定量分析的基础。文中利用镜质体反射率法、流体包裹体法、声波时差法和地层厚度趋势法等多种方法,恢复了内蒙古雅布赖盆地侏罗系和白垩系剥蚀厚度。计算结果表明,侏罗系和白垩系总剥蚀厚度为1610.9~2177.0,m;在流体包裹体法和地层厚度趋势法约束下,恢复的侏罗系剥蚀厚度为930.2~1395.3,m,白垩系剥蚀厚度为0~612.1,m。雅布赖盆地侏罗系剥蚀厚度“北大南小”,白垩系剥蚀厚度“南大北小”,反映盆地改造强度具有晚侏罗世南弱北强、早白垩世南强北弱的特征。大规模隆升剥蚀,导致地层温度下降、烃源岩遭到破坏,一定程度上制约着雅布赖盆地的烃源岩成熟演化以及油气生成。     

Salt diapir velocity assessment from temperature and thermal indicator anomalies: application to Lulu-1, Danish North Sea

A method is exhibited for assessing the time of onset of diapirism and salt flow-speed. Using vitrinite reflectance measurements from wells drilled on top of a salt structure it is possible to determine the excess maturity caused by the focusing of heat due to the higher thermal conductivity of salt. The method is based on calculation of the thermal anomaly surrounding a rising salt diapir. For a given salt speed, predicted vitrinite reflectance values are calculated and compared with the observed values at given depths. The process is repeated with various speeds of the rising salt until consistency of predicted and observed values is obtained, thus constraining an assessment of the velocity of the salt. The method can easily be tailored to thermal indicators other than vitrinite reflectance, thereby enhancing the resolution of the thermal history, and constraining both the onset of salt rise as well as the speed. The well, Lulu-1, from the Danish North Sea, is used to illustrate the procedure.     

Geochemical Evaluation of the Permian Ecca Shale in Eastern Cape Province,South Africa: Implications for Shale Gas Potential

Shale gas has been the exploration focus for future energy supply in South Africa in recent time. Specifically, the Permian black shales of the Prince Albert, Whitehill, Collingham, Ripon and Fort Brown Formations are considered to be most prospective rocks for shale gas exploration. In this study,outcrop and core samples from the Ecca Group were analyzed to assess their total organic carbon(TOC), organic matter type, thermal maturity and hydrocarbon generation potential. These rocks have TOC ranging from 0.11 to 7.35 wt%. The genetic potential values vary from 0.09 to 0.53 mg HC/g,suggesting poor hydrocarbon generative potential. Most of the samples have Hydrogen Index(HI) values of less than 50 mg HC/g TOC, thus suggesting Type-Ⅳ kerogen. Tmax values range from 318℃ to601℃, perhaps indicating immature to over-maturity of the samples. The vitrinite reflectance values range from 2.22% to 3.93%, indicating over-maturity of samples. Binary plots of HI against Oxygen Index(OI), and HI versus Tmax show that the shales are of Type II and mixed Type Ⅱ-Ⅲ kerogen.Based on the geochemical data, the potential source rocks are inferred as immature to over-matured and having present-day potential to produce gas.     

Vitrinite recycling: diagnostic criteria and reflectance changes during weathering and reburial

The aim of this study was first to review or even identify reliable diagnostic criteria to distinguish recycled and autochthonous vitrinite particles and, second, to examine and try to explain the impact of weathering and reburial on optical changes (reflectance) of recycled material. The work was based on indigenous and recycled particles of two sample sets from two wells drilled in the Senegalese margin basin and the Ardèche paleomargin (SE France), respectively. In addition to reflectance measurements, the studied samples have also been analysed by Rock-Eval pyrolysis. For both sample sets, hydrogen index (HI) and oxygen index (OI) values suggest a type III organic matter of dominant terrestrial origin.Two main diagnostic criteria appear particularly useful to identify indigenous and recycled vitrinite particles: the first is the clear genetic relationship between telinite and collotelinite; the second is the presence of pyrite framboid inclusions in indigenous vitrinite. The pyrite–vitrinite association illustrates the relationship between sulphate reduction, pyritisation, and in situ organic matter transformation through gelification process. However, application of both diagnostic criteria requires some additional information about depositional conditions (i.e., anoxicity) and thermal maturity of the studied samples. Weathering has no or only very limited effect on vitrinite reflectance. During their new burial history, recycled vitrinites follow a reflectance evolution path close to that of inertinites and thus appear as transitional materials between vitrinite and inertinite macerals. Consistently, this behaviour implies that recycled vitrinite reflectance changes during burial diagenesis do not solely depend on their chemical composition but, most probably too, on combined chemical and structural changes inherited from their past burial history and from the impact of weathering during their recycling stage.     

鄂尔多斯盆地渭北隆起烃源岩成熟度分布特征与热演化史恢复

渭北隆起发育多套烃源岩,是寻找油气的重要战略区。对渭北隆起不同层位烃源岩的热演化程度变化规律及热演化历史缺乏深入研究。本文利用大量反射率测试资料及裂变径迹分析资料,确定了研究区不同层位热演化程度及变化规律,在恢复剥蚀厚度及埋藏史的基础上,恢复了渭北隆起的构造热—演化史及生烃史。研究结果表明：渭北隆起上三叠统延长组处于生油阶段、石炭—二叠系、奥陶系处于生气阶段,不同层位热演化程度总体上具有北高南低、西高东低的特点。渭北隆起不同层位镜质体反射率与深度关系为似线型,镜质体反射率随深度增加而增加。渭北隆起自早白垩世末以来经历了大规模抬升冷却,具有南早北晚的特点,40 Ma以来,研究区整体快速抬升冷却。热演化史研究表明渭北隆起不同层位最高热演化程度是在早白垩世达到的,从寒武纪到侏罗纪,地温梯度总体较低;中生代晚期早白垩世,受构造热事件影响,古地温梯度最高可达46.0 ℃/km;晚白垩世以来,由于地温梯度降低及地层大规模抬升剥蚀,地层温度明显降低。渭北隆起奥陶系、石炭—二叠系烃源岩天然气生气高峰期、上三叠统延长组烃源岩生油高峰期均在早白垩世,生油、生气高峰期受中生代晚期高地温梯度、构造热事件的控制。新生代以来渭北隆起大规模抬升剥蚀,地层快速抬升冷却,地层温度明显降低,烃源岩生烃过程停止。     

东营凹陷现今大规模超压系统整体分布特征及主控因素

东营凹陷为超压富烃凹陷, 钻井揭示该凹陷现今大规模超压系统出现在始新统沙三-四段烃源岩层系.根据大量的钻杆测试(DST)数据, 实测沙三-四段砂岩异常高压的深度范围约在2 200~4 400 m, 剩余压力约为4~40 MPa, 压力系数为1.2~1.99.根据钻井和测井以及地震速度资料解释, 超压带钻井泥浆密度明显增加, 超压泥岩层具有偏离正常趋势的异常高声波时差测井响应和异常低地震层速度响应特征.综合解释超压系统顶界面埋深在2 200~2 900 m, 对应地温在90~120 ℃; 超压顶界面深度随着烃源岩层系顶界埋深的增加而增加.超压系统范围内烃源岩层系样品镜质体反射率(R_o)分布在0.5%~1.2%, 沙三中、下亚段-沙四上亚段成熟烃源岩(R_o为0.5%~1.2%)及其生油作用控制了超压分布的主体区域, 佐证了东营凹陷现今大规模超压发育区与烃源岩生油增压有成因联系; 成熟烃源岩的累积厚度、埋深及热成熟度是超压系统整体分布特征和超压发育幅度的主控因素; 断裂系统和输导性砂体对东营凹陷沙三-四段烃源岩层系中发育的大规模超压系统的分布特征和结构变化具有重要影响.      

二连盆地胜利煤田含煤地层埋藏史及热史分析

根据地层岩性数据及热物理参数,利用50组镜质组反射率数据、46组泥岩声波时差数据以及3个钻孔的地温数据,重建胜利煤田晚白垩世以来的埋藏史、热演化史和生烃史。结果表明:1）胜利煤田表现出“早期沉降伴随抬升,晚期终止”的埋藏特征。阿尔善组至都红木组1段沉积期,研究区处于加速-快速沉降期,其沉积末期发生第一期抬升剥蚀,剥蚀量约410 m;都红木组2段至赛罕塔拉沉积期,研究区再次进入快速沉降期,而后发生第二期抬升剥蚀,剥蚀量约580 m;赛汗塔拉沉积末期至今,研究区处于缓慢-终止沉降期;2）阿尔善期至都红木1段沉积期,研究区地温逐渐升高,在都红木组1段沉积末期地温达到峰值约90 ℃,随后在第一期抬升剥蚀作用下,地温迅速下降;在赛汗塔拉组沉积期地温迅速升高,沉积末期达到峰值120 ℃,处于异常高地温状态,而后经过第二期抬升剥蚀作用,地温下降,此后研究区地温处于稳定阶段;3）烃源岩成熟度受控于古地温,阿尔善组和腾格尔组烃源岩处于低成熟-成熟阶段,有一定的生烃潜力,而都红木组和赛汗塔拉组处于未成熟阶段,几乎无生烃潜力。     

华北北部凌源-宁城盆地蓟县系洪水庄组生烃潜力分析——以小庄户剖面为例

通过岩石热解、饱和烃色谱-质谱、镜质体反射率等分析测试方法,对凌源-宁城盆地小庄户剖面蓟县系洪水庄组烃源岩的有机质丰度、类型及成熟度进行了详细分析,综合评价了其生烃潜力.研究结果表明,蓟县系洪水庄组有机碳的含量分布在0.42%~2.65%,平均值为1.46%。应用Pr/n-C₁₇与Ph/n-C₁₈的相关关系及干酪根碳同位素分析,判断其有机质类型为Ⅰ型和Ⅱ₁型.镜质体反射率R_o主要分布于0.62%~0.81%之间,平均为0.73%;岩石热解参数T_max主要为429~447℃,平均值为440.44℃,指示洪水庄组烃源岩属于成熟演化阶段。综合评价认为,凌源-宁城盆地蓟县系洪水庄组具有良好的生油气潜力.     

板桥凹陷沙三段油气生成、运移和聚集数值模拟

板桥凹陷主要烃源岩为沙三段地层暗色泥岩,而沙三段砂岩为板桥凹陷主要储层之一.在恢复板桥凹陷埋藏史、热史和成熟史的基础上,定量模拟沙三段油气生成、运移和聚集特征,模拟结果利用实测镜质体反射率(Ro)、地层温度和63口井钻探结果验证.模拟结果表明:(1)板桥凹陷现今的热流值在59.8～61.7mW/m2之间,古热流演化经历了早期(65～50.4Ma)持续升高和晚期(50.4～0Ma)逐渐降低两个阶段,在距今50.4Ma达到最高;(2)东营组沉积末期,板桥凹陷沙三段烃源岩成熟度(Ro)大约在0.5%～1.25%之间,现今成熟度(Ro)范围大约在0.5%～1.8%之间,在距今大约35Ma开始生烃,距今30Ma开始达到生烃高峰;(3)沙三段烃源岩在距今大约31Ma开始排烃,距今31～26Ma为主要排烃阶段,距今26～0Ma为少量排烃阶段;(4)板桥凹陷油气主要运移路径主要受控于古构造面,凹陷区以发散流为主,北部陡坡带以平行流为主,汇聚流主要存在板桥凹陷南部缓坡带.在板桥凹陷沙三段存在6个有利油气聚集区,其中以聚集区Ⅰ和Ⅱ最有利,主要是因为近源、油气运移动力强和运移距离短.     

Thermal history of the Hodgkinson Province and Laura Basin,Queensland: Multiple cooling episodes identified from apatite fission track analysis and vitrinite reflectance data

Apatite fission track analysis and vitrinite reflectance data from outcrop and well samples in the Hodgkinson Province and Laura Basin reveal regional Cretaceous cooling. Apatite fission track analysis appears to define two discrete cooling episodes, in the mid‐Cretaceous (110–100 Ma) and Late Cretaceous (80–70 Ma), although in most samples data allow only definition of a single episode. Rocks now at outcrop cooled from Cretaceous palaeotemperatures generally between 50 and 130°C in the south of the region, and from >100°C in the north. Some samples from the Hodgkinson Province also show evidence for an Early Jurassic cooling episode, characterised by maximum palaeotemperatures varying from at least 95°C (from apatite fission track analysis) to ～200–220°C (from vitrinite reflectance), with cooling beginning at around 200 Ma. Apatite fission track analysis data do not reveal the earlier event in the Laura Basin, but on the basis of vitrinite reflectance data from Permian? units this event is also inferred to have affected the pre‐Jurassic basin units in this region. The regional extent of the Cretaceous cooling episode in the Hodgkinson Province suggests that the elevated palaeotemperatures in this region were most likely due to greater depth of burial, with subsequent cooling due to kilometre‐scale denudation. For a palaeogeothermal gradient of 30°C/km and a palaeosurface temperature of 25°C the total degree of Cretaceous cooling experienced by the samples corresponds to removal of between ～0.8 and >3.0 km of Triassic and younger section removed by denudation, beginning some time between ca 110 and 80 Ma. Higher palaeogradients would require correspondingly lower amounts of removed section. The geology of the Laura Basin suggests that an explanation of the observed Cretaceous palaeotemperatures in this region in terms of deeper burial may be untenable. Heating due to hot fluid flow may be a more realistic mechanism for producing the observed Cretaceous palaeothermal effects in the Laura Basin.     

利用干酪根热解动力学模拟实验研究塔里木盆地下古生界古地温

通过热解动力学模拟实验，对塔里木盆地塔参1井奥陶系干酪根的热演化过程进行了模拟，以此基础上利用KINETICS软件求取干酪根镜质体反射率（R0）的生成动力学参数，并结合塔参1井的沉积埋藏史，计算塔参1井寒武－奥陶系的古地温，这对于研究塔里木盆地下古生界高过成熟烃源岩的古地温是一种新方法。     

伊利石结晶度在恢复地层剥蚀量中的应用--以合肥盆地安参1井白垩系剥蚀量的恢复为例

针对合肥盆地勘探程度低、地热史资料缺乏的现状,提出利用伊利石结晶度与埋藏深度和成岩温度之间的对应关系来确定古地温梯度,进而利用温度资料求取原始地层厚度和剥蚀量,并利用包裹体测温和镜质体反射率两种方法计算出安参1井白垩系的原始地层厚度和剥蚀量,其结果具有较好的可比性,为深化盆地下侏罗统和下白垩统烃源岩的热演化研究提供了保证.     

Organic geochemical evaluation of the oil/gas-generative potential of organic matter in Cretaceous strata from the Lower Benue Trough,Nigeria

An analytical procedure involving Rock-Eval pyrolysis of whole-rocks was adopted on fresh outcrop samples covering the three lithostratigraphic units in the Afikpo Basin of the Lower Benue Trough. Three petroleum systems are present in the Cretaceous delta frame: the Asu-River Group, the Eze-Aku Group and proto-Niger Delta sequences. The Afikpo Basin has been correlated to three petroleum systems in the Lower Congo Basin, Niger Delta and the Anambra Basin. The organic geochemistry of the shales, carbonaceous mudstones and coal beds show relatively moderate to high total organic carbon contents. The best potential hydrocarbon source rocks are the Eze-Aku Group and proto-Niger Delta shales, carbonaceous mudstones and coal beds where maturation was attained. The high total or-ganic contents, thermal maturity and terrigenous characters of the Asu-River Group, Eze-Aku Group and proto-Niger Delta sediments, suggest the presence of a large amount of natural gas with a small quantity of oil accumulation. Variations in source rock facies were observed from one lithostratigraphic unit to another, and initial HI values as a function of TOC were proposed for each lithostratigraphic unit. The results also show that TOC, HI, OI, S2 and Tmax vary from older to younger rocks. The Tmax values discriminate the rocks into immature and mature source rocks. Source rocks with high Tmax suggest high geothermal gradient/or recycled organic matter. Also high Tmax and S2 yield indicate late and post maturity. Recycled organic matter is characterized by low Tmax. The principal source rocks for gas in the Afikpo Basin are the Eze-Aku Group and proto-Niger Delta beds deltaic systems, consisting mainly of III to IV kerogens with a subordinate amount of type II organic matter. Based on the obtained results, it is concluded that the Cretaceous shales, carbonaceous mudstones and coals in the Afikpo Basin of the Lower Benue Trough are capable of generating and expelling hydrocarbons in the case of sufficient maturity.     

修正的镜质体反射率剥蚀厚度恢复方法

针对目前用的地层剥蚀厚度恢复镜质体反射率差值法所存在问题,在考察地层沉降、抬升、再沉降埋藏史过程的基础上,根据有机质演化累积性和不可逆性原则,利用经典的有机质成熟度时温关系模型（ＴＴＩ）,建立了修正的镜质体反射率剥蚀厚度恢复方法。该方法不仅考虑了剥蚀界面上下镜质体反射率的相对值,还考虑了各自绝对量,与以往仅考虑镜质体反射率差值相比,有较大改进。     

Statistical analysis of vitrinite reflectance data—a new approach

The reflectance of vitrinite (collotelinite) particles is a widely used parameter as a geothermometer for the estimation of the thermal maturity of organic matter enclosed in rocks. However, several problems have occurred during the last decades, which can be traced back to basically three causes: human mistakes, technical problems, and problems associated with the structural and compositional inhomogeneity of organic matter. Whilst in most cases the first two types of uncertainties can be handled by standardization, the third can cause significant problems during interpretation due to its generally inestimable character. The suppression of vitrinite reflectance and statistical problems originated from small sample size, and outliers belong to this latter type.International standards, such as the ASTM and the ISO, define the vitrinite reflectance parameter as a statistical average of measured data, disregarding the fact that the average is an unresisting and unrobust statistical parameter. In other words, the average is very sensitive to outliers and distribution.The aim of this research was to find and test a better, more resistant, and robust statistical parameter used by traditional parametric and nonparametric statistics, which can be applied in practice instead of the average. Three categories of statistical problems were studied on coal and disperse organic matter (DOM) samples: the distribution of measured values, the effect of data number, and the effect of outliers on statistical parameters. The statistical experiments carried out on numerous original and generated sample sets show that the median (med) and the most frequent value (Mn), a special weighted average, are better parameters to estimate the thermal maturity of organic matter especially above 1% reflectance value.     

查干凹陷中、新生代热史及烃源岩热演化

查干凹陷是内蒙古银-额盆地最具勘探潜力的凹陷, 为了揭示查干凹陷中、新生代热史及烃源岩热演化历史, 首先利用9口井的镜质体反射率数据恢复了查干凹陷中、新生代热史, 结果显示查干凹陷在早白垩世巴音戈壁组沉积开始至银根组沉积末期, 地温梯度逐渐增加, 且到银根组沉积末期达到最大, 为50~58 ℃/km; 自晚白垩世乌兰苏海组沉积开始至今, 地温梯度逐渐下降, 现今地温梯度仅为31~34 ℃/km.再以热史为基础, 结合沉积和构造发育史及烃源岩地球化学资料, 模拟了查干凹陷9口井3套烃源岩的成熟度演化历史, 模拟结果显示查干凹陷烃源岩成熟度演化受古地温控制, 3套烃源岩成熟度都在早白垩世晚期达到最大.